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A-Level Psychology AQA > Section 7 - Research Methods > Flashcards

Section 7 - Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is an aim?

A

A statement of the study’s purpose. Research should state its aim beforehand so it is clear what the study intends to investigate

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2
Q

What is one tailed hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that predicts a difference between your variables. It makes a directional prediction

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3
Q

What is a one tailed hypothesis also known as?

A

A directional hypothesis

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4
Q

What is a two tailed hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that predicts a difference but doesn’t state where the difference lies

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5
Q

What is a two-tailed hypothesis also known as?

A

A non-directional hypothesis

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6
Q

When would you use a one tailed hypothesis?

A

When you have previous rewards findings which suggest which way the results will go

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7
Q

When would you use a two tailed hypothesis?

A

When there is little to none previous research in the area or when results are mixed or inconclusive

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8
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

This is what you assume during the study

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9
Q

What do you do when your data does not support your null hypothesis?

A

You reject it and go with your alternative hypothesis instead

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10
Q

What does the null hypothesis predict?

A

That there is no difference/relationship between your variables

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11
Q

What is a histogram?

A

It is used when you have continuous data. The columns touch and it is the height of the column that shows the number of values in each interval

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12
Q

What is correlational analysis?

A

It is a measure of how closely to variable are related

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13
Q

What are the advantages of correlational analysis?

A

+ do not need to use a controlled experiment
+ can use sensitive data obtained from hospitals

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14
Q

What are disadvantages to correlational analysis?

A
  • cannot establish cause and effect -> third variable
  • coefficients can be due to chance
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15
Q

What is the correlation coefficient?

A

Is a number between -1 and +1. This mean that the closer it is, the stronger the relationship between the variables

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16
Q

What is positive correlation?

A

As one variable rises, the other rises

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17
Q

What is negative correlation?

A

As one variable rises, the other falls

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18
Q

What is no correlation?

A

Variables are not linked

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19
Q

What is the characteristic of a normal distribution (in terms of the mean,median and mode)?

A

Symmetrical around the mean - mean, mode and median are the same

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20
Q

What is a negative skew?

A

There are more scores at the higher end of the data set. The tail is on the left side of the peak. The mode is more than the median which is more than the mean

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21
Q

What is a positive skew?

A

There are more scores at the lower end of the data set. The tail is on the right side of the peak. The mode is less than median, which is less than the mean

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22
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

Is the variable directly manipulated by the researcher

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23
Q

What is the dependant variable?

A

Is the variable you think will be affected by the changes in the IV

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24
Q

What is meant by operationalism?

A

Describing the process by which the variable is measured. This allows the researchers to see exactly how you are defining and measuring your variables.

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25
Q

What is random allocation?

A

Means everyone has an equal chance of doing either condition

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26
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Mixing up the order of the tasks. This helps with order effects in repeated measures designs

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27
Q

What is randomisation?

A

When materials are presented to the participants in random order

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28
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Everything should be as similar as possible for all the participants

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29
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Any variable other than the independent variable that could affect what you’re trying to measure

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30
Q

How you control extraneous variables?

A

By using random sampling as it creates more equality between groups

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31
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Any variable that influences your dependant variable

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32
Q

What is validity?

A

Accuracy - internal and external

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33
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Generalisable go real life settings

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34
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Results from a new test that can be compared to a previously well established test

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35
Q

What is population validity?

A

Whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people

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36
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

Assesses to what degree research findings remain over time

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37
Q

What is face validity?

A

The extent to which a test appears to measure what it is intended to measure

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38
Q

What is reliability?

A

The overall consistency of a measure

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39
Q

What are the two types of reliability?

A

Internal and external

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40
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

The extent to which a test is consistent within itself

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41
Q

What is external reliability?

A

Refers to the ability of the test to produce the same results each time it is carried out

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42
Q

What are ethical guidelines.

A

Ethical guidelines were developed for psychologists to follow when they are designing studies, so that participants are protected

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43
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Participants should always give informed consent. They should be told the aims and nature of the study and given the right to withdraw

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44
Q

What is deception?

A

Is participants have been deceived then they cannot give informed consent. Sometimes researchers must withhold information about the study because the participants would not behave naturally if they knew the aims

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45
Q

What is the right to withdraw?

A

Participants are allowed to withdraw from the research at any point

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46
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

None of the participants in the study should be identifiable from any reports that are produced. Data must be confidential and anonymous

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47
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

Risk if harm to participants should be no greater than those they would face in their normal lives

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48
Q

Explain why a debrief can be used a method of dealing with all other issues?

A

This should return participants to the state they were in before the research. Researchers must fully explain what the research involved and what the results might show

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49
Q

What are the 5 ethical guidelines?

A

Informed consent
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
Deception

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50
Q

What are independent groups?

A

When there are different participants in each group

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51
Q

What are the advantages to independent groups?

A

+ no order effects
+ fewer demand characteristics

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52
Q

What are the weaknesses of independent groups?

A
  • participant variables such as individual differences
  • number of participants
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53
Q

What are repeated measures?

A

All participants do all conditions. Used to compare each condition to other

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54
Q

What are the advantages to repeated measures?

A

+ participant variables
+ number of participants

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55
Q

What are weaknesses to repeated measures?

A
  • order effects
  • demand characteristic
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56
Q

What is matched pairs?

A

When there are different participants in each condition but they are matched on important variables

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57
Q

What are advantages to matched pairs?

A

+ no order effects
+ participant variables

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58
Q

What are weaknesses to matched pairs?

A
  • number of participants
  • practicalities such as time consuming and difficult to find people who match
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59
Q

What is the nature and use of a field experiment?

A

Experiments are conducted outside of the lab. Behaviour is measured in a natural environment such as a school. A key variable is still altered so it’s effect can be measured

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60
Q

What is the nature and use of a laboratory experiment?

A

An experiment that controls all relevant variables except one key variable, which is altered to see what the effect is.

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61
Q

What are the advantages to laboratory experiments?

A

+ controlled
+ replicable

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62
Q

What are the weaknesses to laboratory experiments?

A
  • artificial
  • demand characteristics
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63
Q

What is a confederate?

A

Someone who is involved in the research that tries to influence the participants

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64
Q

What is an experimental group?

A

The participants are the experiment who the researcher is testing. Ex - they may receive a drug

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65
Q

What is a control group?

A

The other condition where participants are taking part in the experiment, but no manipulation is used. Ex - they may receive a saline solution instead of the drug that the experimental group received

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66
Q

Example of a lab experiment studied?

A

Milgram

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67
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Participants may have determined the aims of the study; they may now act deliberately to please the researcher (or the opposite)

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68
Q

How can you control demand characteristics?

A

By counterbalancing or randomisation

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69
Q

What is meant by double blind and when is it used?

A

Neither the participants or the researchers know which condition the participants are in. This is used is medical trials

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70
Q

What is meant by single blind and when is it used?

A

The participants do not know what condition they are in. This is used for the experiment and control groups

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71
Q

What is the nature and use of a natural experiment?

A

It is where the researcher looks at how the independent variable, which is not manipulated by the researcher effects the dependent variable. The IV is an event that occurs naturally

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72
Q

What are the advantages to natural experiments?

A

+ demand characteristics
+ ecological validity

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73
Q

What are the weaknesses to natural experiments?

A
  • causal relationship
  • ethics
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74
Q

What is the nature and use of quasi experiment?

A

The researcher is not able to use random allocation to put participants into different conditions. It is a naturally occurring independent variable

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75
Q

What are the advantages to quasi experiment?

A

+ control
+ ecological validity

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76
Q

What are the disadvantages to quasi experiment?

A
  • participant allocation
  • causal relationships
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77
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

Categories defined by the researcher to observe during the experiment

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78
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Researcher records every event (of a behaviour category) when observed in the research

79
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Researcher records every behaviour within a certain time frame, for example ten minutes

80
Q

What is controlled observation?

A

Takes place in a laboratory so the researcher can control the conditions

81
Q

Name an example of a famous controlled observation?

A

Bandura

82
Q

What are the strengths of controlled observation?

A

+ replication is possible due to highly controlled procedure
+ extraneous variables can be controlled

83
Q

What are the weaknesses of controlled observation?

A
  • lower ecological validity
  • participants may alter their behaviour if they know they are being observed
84
Q

What is naturalistic observation?

A

Take place in a natural experiment. They can be structured in advance to make sure no behaviours are missed

85
Q

What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?

A

+ ecological validity
+ theory development

86
Q

What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

A
  • extraneous variables
  • observer bias
  • ethics
87
Q

What is covert observation?

A

When the researchers’ presence is unknown to the participants

88
Q

What are the strengths of covert observation?

A

The participants are more likely to behave naturally

89
Q

What are the weaknesses of covert observation?

A

Gaining ethics can be difficult

90
Q

What is overt observation?

A

Researchers’ presence is obvious to the participants

91
Q

What are the strengths of overt observation?

A

more ethically sound than other methods because the participants are aware of the research

92
Q

What are the weaknesses of overt observation?

A

People might change their behaviour if they know they are being observed

93
Q

What is participant observation?

A

When the researcher participates in the study

94
Q

What are the strengths of participant observation?

A

The researcher develops a relationship with the group in the study

95
Q

What are the weaknesses of participant observation?

A
  • The researcher loses objectivity by becoming part of the group
  • Participants might act differently if they know there is a researcher amongst them
96
Q

What is non-participant observation?

A

When the researcher observes the activity without getting involved in it

97
Q

What are the strengths of non participant observation?

A

The researcher can remain objective throughout the study

98
Q

What are the weaknesses of non participant observation?

A

The researcher loses a sense of group dynamics by staying separate from the group

99
Q

What does it mean to be structured?

A

The researcher determines precisely what behaviours are to be observed and uses a standardised checklist to record the frequency with which they are observed within a specific time frame

100
Q

What are the strengths of a research being structured?

A

+ controlled
+ can be repeated

101
Q

What are the weaknesses of a research being structured?

A
  • might miss relevant information if too controlled
102
Q

What does it mean to be unstructured?

A

The observer recalls all relevant behaviours but has no system

103
Q

What are the strengths of a research being unstructured?

A

+ all behaviour is recorded

104
Q

What are the weaknesses of a research being unstructured?

A
  • not controlled or repeatable
105
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

The test should give consistent results regardless of who administers it. This can be assessed by correlating the scores that each researcher produces and comparing them. Consistency is key - 80%

106
Q

What is the nature and use of a interview?

A

Used to gather qualitative research - can be face to face or over the phone

107
Q

What are the advantages to a interview?

A

+ rich data
+ pilot study

108
Q

What are the weaknesses to a interview?

A
  • impractical
  • ethics
109
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

Fixed set of questions that are the same for all participants

110
Q

What are strengths of a structured interview?

A

+ can be easily repeated
+ requires less skill
+ easier to analyse

111
Q

What are weaknesses of a structured interview?

A
  • interview bias can still occur
  • social desirability
  • data collection is restricted by pre-determined questions
112
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

The interview starts with some general aims and questions and then lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions

113
Q

What are the strengths of an unstructured interview?

A

+ detailed information can be obtained
+ high validity - good rapport
+ deeper insight into thoughts and feelings

114
Q

What are weaknesses of an unstructured interview?

A
  • interviewer bias
  • requires training
  • harder to analyse
115
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

These can be anything that the researcher does which can affect how the participant behaves. If a researcher’s expectations influence how they behave towards their participants, the participants may respond to demand characteristics

116
Q

What is researcher bias?

A

The researchers’ expectations can influence how they design their study and how they behave towards the participants. Their expectations may influence how they take measurements and analyse their data, resulting in errors that can lead to accepting a hypothesis that is actually false

117
Q

How can you avoid researcher bias?

A

A research assistant can conduct the research using standardised procedures to avoid bias/effects

118
Q

What is content analysis?

A

Research analysing secondary data you have already collected. Data is split into categories

119
Q

Describe the process involved in content analysis?

A

. A representative sample of qualitative data is collected
. Coding units are identified to analyse the data
. The qualitative data is then analysed to see how often each coding unit occurs

120
Q

On what type of data would content analysis be used?

A

Secondary data

121
Q

What are the strengths of content analysis?

A

+ inexpensive
+ ethics - participants are not directly involved
, so less ethical issues

122
Q

What are weaknesses of content analysis?

A
  • data analysis can be very time consuming
  • subjectivity
123
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

Making summaries of data and identifying key themes and categories

124
Q

What are the strengths of thematic analysis?

A

+ qualitative data preserves the detail in the data
+ creating hypotheses during the analysis allow for new insights to be developed
+ some objectivity can be established using triangulation (using other sources of data to check conclusions

125
Q

What are weaknesses of thematic analysis?

A
  • deciding which categories to use and whether a statement fits a particular category
  • deciding what to leave out the summary (some data can be lost)
  • subjective
126
Q

How is the mean calculated?

A

Adding all the scores in a data set and then dividing by the number of scores

127
Q

What are advantages of the mean?

A

+ uses all scores in the data
+ very sensitive stat as it takes account of exact distance between all values of all data

128
Q

What are weaknesses of the mean?

A
  • if one value is anomalous the overall mean can be distorted and misrepresent the data
  • cannot be used with nominal data
129
Q

How is the mode calculated?

A

The score that occurs the most often

130
Q

What are the advantages of the mode?

A

+ shows the most common score
+ unaffected by extreme values and is useful for discrete data
+ only method useful for nominal data

131
Q

What are weaknesses of the mode?

A
  • sometimes there are so many modes so data cannot be described using this data
  • has little further use in data analysis
132
Q

How is the median calculated?

A

The middle score when data is put in order

133
Q

What are advantages of the median?

A

+ quick and easy to work out
+ not affected by extremely high or low scores

134
Q

What are weaknesses of the median?

A
  • not all scores are used to work out the median
135
Q

What are the measures of central tendency?

A

Mode, mean and median

136
Q

How is the range calculated?

A

Highest score minus the lowest score

137
Q

What are the advantages of the range?

A

+ its quick and easy to calculate

138
Q

What are the weaknesses of the range?

A
  • it completely ignores the central values of data set, so can be misleading if there are high or low scores
  • effected by extreme values
139
Q

How is standard deviation calculated?

A

Measures on average how much scores deviate from the mean

140
Q

What are advantages of standard deviation?

A

+ all scores in set are considered so it’s more accurate than the range

141
Q

What are weaknesses of standard deviation?

A
  • its not quick and easy to calculate
142
Q

What are the measures of dispersion?

A

Range and standard deviation

143
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Data involving words, videos or audio recordings

144
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Numbers

145
Q

What is primary data?

A

Data collected first hand by the researcher

146
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Data collected from a source such as a book or newspaper

147
Q

What is meta-analysis?

A

Where you analyse the results from loads of different studies and come up with some general conclusions

148
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small scale preliminary study conducted before any large scale quantitative research in order to evaluate the potential for future, full scale project

149
Q

What do pilot studies allow researchers to do?

A

It allows them to check the methodology, standardise the instructions and allow the research to be conducted

150
Q

What is the nature and use of a questionnaire?

A

Can be written, face to face, on the phone or online

151
Q

What is the design of a questionnaire?

A

Two types of questions: open ( allow participant to respond in any way and in as much detail) and closed (limit answer given)

152
Q

What type of data does open questions give?

A

Detailed, qualitative data

153
Q

What type of data does closed questions give?

A

Quantitative data, which is easier to analyse

154
Q

What are advantages of questionnaires?

A

+ practical meaning you can collect a lot of data

155
Q

What are disadvantages of questionnaires?

A
  • leading or unclear questions can be a problem
  • biased samples
  • self report
156
Q

What is social desirability?

A

People usually try to show themselves in the best possible light so may not be completely truthful and give answers that are more socially acceptable

157
Q

How does social desirability affect validity?

A

Not a true representation of someones opinion/thoughts/feelings

158
Q

What is the nature and use of case studies?

A

Case studies have intensive descriptions of a single individual or case. It allows researchers to analyse unusual cases in a lot of detail

159
Q

What are advantages of case studies?

A

+ rich data
+ unique cases

160
Q

What are weaknesses of case studies?

A
  • causal relationships (cause and effect cannot be established)
  • cannot be generalised
161
Q

Famous case study example

A

Little Hans

162
Q

What is a sample?

A

A representative group of people from a target population

163
Q

What is meant by a population?

A

All the people in a particular group - ex a certain age or background

164
Q

What is random sampling?

A

When every member of a target group has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. Can be done manually or by computer

165
Q

What are the advantages of random sampling?

A

+ fair
+ sample is likely to be representative

166
Q

What are weaknesses of random sampling?

A
  • not guaranteed to have a representative sample
  • researcher may end up with biased sample because sample size is too small
167
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

When people actively volunteer to be in a study by responding to a request for participants advertised by the researcher

168
Q

What are advantages of volunteering sampling?

A

+ larger number of people may respond
+ in depth analysis and accurate results if larger sample used

169
Q

What are weaknesses of volunteering sampling?

A
  • not representative as only sample are of those who respond to notice
170
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

When the researcher samples whoever is available and willing to be studied

171
Q

What are advantages of opportunity sampling?

A

+ quick and practical

172
Q

What are disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A
  • unlikely to be a representative sample
  • cannot generalise the findings
173
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Where important subgroups (ex - different age groups) are identified and a proportionate number of each is randomly obtained

174
Q

What are advantages of stratified sampling?

A

+ fairly representative sample

175
Q

What are weaknesses of stratified sampling?

A
  • time consuming because all potential participants need to be assessed and categorised
  • some groups within a sample may not be represented if a small sample is used
176
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Where every Nth name from a sampling frame is taken (ex - every 3rd name from a register)

177
Q

What are advantages to systematic sampling?

A

+ simple and effective way of generating a sample with a random element
+ populations is more likely to be evenly sampled

178
Q

What are weaknesses to systematic sampling?

A
  • subgroups might be missed
  • not necessarily representative if the pattern used for sample coincides with a pattern in the population
179
Q

What are the sampling methods?

A

. Random sampling
. Systematic sampling
. Stratified sampling
. Volunteer sampling
. Opportunity sampling

180
Q

What are the alternative ways of getting consent?

A

. Presumptive
. Prior general
. Retrospective

181
Q

What is presumptive consent?

A

Ask a similar group of people for consent

182
Q

What is prior general consent?

A

Consent for different studies, including one that may involve deception

183
Q

What is retrospective consent?

A

Ask for consent during debrief

184
Q

What is nominal measurement?

A

Data represented in the form of categories (ex - how many students in 6th form drive or walk to school)

185
Q

What is important about nominal data?

A

It is discrete, one item can only appear in one category

186
Q

What is ordinal measurement?

A

Data which is ordered in some way (ex - students asked how much they like 6th form on a scale of 1-10)

187
Q

What is important about ordinal data?

A

Does not have equal intervals between each unit (ex - doesn’t make sense to say someone who rated 6th form as an 8 enjoys it twice as much as someone who rated it a 4)

188
Q

What is interval/ratio measurement?

A

Based on numerical scales that include units of equal precisely defined size

189
Q

What units are used in interval/ratio measurement?

A

Height, time and temperature

190
Q

When is the sign test used?

A

. When looking for a difference not an association
. When using a repeated measures design
. Using data that is organised into categories-nominal data

191
Q

How is the sign test done?

A

Calculate the difference between ‘before’ and ‘after’. Then add up the number of positive signs and negative signs. The smallest one is the observed value

192
Q

What is the critical value?

A

. The significance level desired
. The number of participants (the N value)
. You need to identify whether you are using a one tailed or two tailed test and the significance level you desire before you can use the critical table effectively

193
Q

What are the steps of statistical testing?

A
  1. Null hypothesis - this is the prediction you want to test and we assume the null hypothesis is true
  2. Significance level - this is the level of proof you are looking at before you read into your results. The smaller the significance level, the stronger the evidence you’re looking for that your results are not just down to chance. Significance level is a probability and the number is between 0 and 1. Significance levels are very small, usually 0.05 or less
  3. You turn your your experimental results into a single statistics test - you can find out what the probability is that this test statistic and your results were the result of a fluke (making null hypothesis true)
  4. If the probability of your results being a fluke is less than the significance level, you can suggest that your null hypothesis wasn’t true. You can assume that the difference between groups was down to the change you made in your independent variable. - you reject the null hypothesis and assume your alternative hypothesis is true
  5. Your results are statistically significant (if you reject the null hypothesis)
  6. If you do not reject the null hypothesis, it means that your results have occurred by chance
  7. Using a significance level of 0.05 is suitable for most tests - if the probability of your results being down to chance is less than or equal to (p less than or equal to 0.05) then it is good evidence that the null hypothesis was not true. You are 95% confident in your conclusion. If you use a significance level of 0.01, then you have really strong evidence that the null hypothesis was not true. Researchers can be at least 99% confident
194
Q
A

A-Level Psychology AQA (17 decks)

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