Social Cognitive theory

Question 1

What is the multi store model of memory?

Answer 1

1. The sensory register

This is a temporary store holding information from the environment very briefly in the form in which it is received- that is, visually, auditory, tactile, or olfactory.

Information needs to receive attention if it is going to begin the process of being transferred to short term memory

A stimulus from the environment will pass into the sensory register. So this part of memory is not in one store, but several, in fact one for each of the five senses. The two main stores are called iconic memory (visual memory is coded visually) and echoic memory (sound or auditory information is coded acoustically)

The sensory register is where information from the senses is stored, but only for a duration of approximately half a second before it is forgotten. In terms of encoding it is modality-specific, i.e. whichever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held.

The capacity is unknown but it is suggested to be unlimited.

1. Short term memory

STM is thought to have a capacity of 5-9 items and a duration of approximately 18-30 seconds. The capacity can be increased through ‘chunking’.

Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves over and over again. We can keep the information in our short-term memory as long as we rehearse it. If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into our long-term memory. If the information is not rehearsed- or if more information disrupts rehearsal- then the information in the store may be displaced and lost. In addition, when we recall something it is retrieved from LTM and enters our STM so that decisions can be made and problems can be solved

1. Long term memory

LTM is where memory is stored after it has been rehearsed while in STM. LTM is of unlimited capacity and duration.

Rehearsing information via the rehearsal loop helps to retain information in the STM, and consolidate it to LTM, which is predominantly encoded semantically.

Long term memory is known as the potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration, and equally has a seemingly unlimited capacity.

Question 2

what is the serial position effect?

Answer 2

• The serial position effect refers to the findings that recall accuracy varies as a function of the position of an item within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any order, people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best. This is known as the recency effect. Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle terms; this is known as the primacy effect.
• One suggested reason for the primacy effect is that the initial items presented are most effectively stored in long-term memory because of the greater amount of processing devoted to them. The first list item can be rehearsed by itself; the second must be rehearsed along with the first, the third along with the first and second, and so on.
• One suggested reason for the recency effect is that these items are still present in working memory when recall is solicited.
• Items that benefit from neither effect are recalled most poorly
  
  • The primacy effect is enhanced when items are presented slowly and reduced when they are presented quickly
  • The recency effect is reduced when an interfering task is given

Question 3

Glanzer and Cunitz

MSM

Answer 3

Aim:
Glanzer and Cunitz aimed to investigate the impact of time intervals between words and repetition on the primacy effect in memory recall. They hypothesized that longer intervals between words would enhance rehearsal, leading to a greater primacy effect, while repetition would improve overall recall.

Procedure:
The study utilized an independent samples design with 240 Army enlisted men, divided into six conditions, each consisting of 40 participants:

Each word read once at a 3-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 3-second rate
Each word read once at a 6-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 6-second rate
Each word read once at a 9-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 9-second rate
Participants underwent a practice session with two 5-word lists to familiarize themselves with the procedure. Subsequently, they listened to recordings of eight 20-word lists, with variations in time intervals and repetition. After each list, participants had two minutes to recall the words in any order. The researchers used a bell to signal the end of each list.

Findings:
The study revealed that longer time intervals between words led to increased recall for all words in the list except for those at the end. The primacy effect, characterized by better recall of words at the beginning of the list, was enhanced with longer time intervals, indicating the role of rehearsal in memory retention. However, the effect of repetition on recall was observed only at the 3-second rate, with no significant impact at the 6 or 9-second rates.

Conclusion:
The findings support the theory that the primacy effect is a result of rehearsal, as longer time intervals allowed for more rehearsal and consequently greater overall recall of the list. However, the availability of words in short-term memory mitigated the impact of repetition on recall. This study contributes to our understanding of memory processes and the factors influencing memory retention, particularly the role of rehearsal and time intervals in shaping the primacy effect.

Question 4

The case study of HM: Milner

Answer 4

Aim:
The aim of this case study was to investigate the effects of surgical removal of specific brain structures on patient HM’s memory functioning, particularly focusing on the role of the hippocampus and other medial temporal structures in memory formation and retention.

Procedure:
To conduct the research, Milner utilized various methods including psychometric testing, direct observation of behavior, interviews with HM and family members, cognitive testing including memory recall tasks and learning tasks, and later MRI scans by Corkin to assess the extent of brain damage. These methods allowed for a comprehensive understanding of HM’s memory capabilities and deficits post-surgery.

Findings:
The study revealed that HM was unable to acquire new episodic or semantic knowledge, indicating the importance of the removed brain structures in transferring information from short-term to long-term memory. However, he demonstrated intact working memory and retained procedural memories, suggesting the involvement of different brain areas in various memory systems. MRI scans showed damage primarily in the hippocampus and surrounding temporal lobe structures, supporting the critical role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation.

Conclusion:
The study highlights the specialization and complexity of memory systems in the brain, particularly emphasizing the role of the hippocampus in converting short-term memories into long-term memories. Additionally, it suggests that short-term memory is not stored in the hippocampus, as evidenced by HM’s ability to retain information temporarily through rehearsal. The preservation of some pre-surgery memories indicates that the medial temporal region may not be the site of permanent storage but rather facilitates the organization and storage of memories elsewhere in the brain. Furthermore, the presence of intact procedural memory supports the notion of multiple memory stores, each associated with different brain regions.

Question 5

Case study of HM link to MSM

Answer 5

This study provides evidence for the multi-store model of memory by demonstrating distinct memory systems associated with different brain regions. HM’s inability to acquire new episodic and semantic knowledge following hippocampal damage aligns with the model’s concept of a separate long-term memory store where information is permanently stored. Meanwhile, his intact working memory and retained procedural memories suggest the existence of separate short-term and procedural memory stores, respectively. Thus, the findings of this study support the multi-store model’s proposition of distinct memory stores with different functions and neural substrates.

Question 6

evaluation for HM case study

Answer 6

• The study was a case study. The strength of this study is that it waslongitudinal- over 50 years! This means that change could be observed over time. In addition, case studies use method triangulation.
• The limitation of case studies is that they cannot be easily replicated. However, there are several other case studies of patients like HM - for example, Clive Wearing - which confirm the findings.
• Some of the study was retrospective. This means that we do not have a lot of data on HM’s actual cognitive abilities before the accident.
• The medication taken to treat epilepsy may have resulted in some of the damage, but this is not highly relevant as it is the damage to specific parts of the brain that is important.
• Highecological validity, no variables were manipulated and HM was observed in his natural environment.
• Milner’s research met high ethical standards of consent, confidentiality, and protection from harm.

Question 7

Positive evaluation for the multi store model of memory

Answer 7

• The model gave us a way to talk about memory and much of the research which followed was based on this model, trying to answer many of the questions psychologists had about memory
• There is a large base of research that supports the idea of distinct STM and LTM systems
• The multi-store model has also been useful in explaining certain memory phenomena, such as the primacy and recency effects. These effects occur when people are presented with a list of items to remember; the items at the beginning of the list are more likely to be remembered due to their entry into long-term memory, while the items at the end of the list are more likely to be remembered due to their presence in short-term memory
• The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research and consequently other influential models, such as the working memory model.

Question 8

negative evaluation for the multi store model of memory

Answer 8

• Some research into STM duration has low ecological validity, as the stimuli participants were asked to remember bear little resemblance to items learned in real life (lack mundane realism)
• The model is over-simplified and assumes that all stores work as an independent unit, evidence suggests that there are many different short term and long term stores
• The model does not explain memory distortion
• The model does not explain why some things may be learned with a minimal amount of rehearsal. The levels of processing theory challenges this model, showing that the way in which we process information may be more important than the frequency of rehearsal
• It does not make much sense to think of a procedural memory as being encoded semantically (i.e. learning to ride a bike through its meaning)
• It is only assumed that LTM has an unlimited capacity, as research has been unable to measure this accurately.

Question 9

Similarities between the multi store model and the working memory model

Answer 9

Recognise that STM and LTM are separate stores
Neither model provides an explanation for memory distortion or the role of emotion in memory formation
Both models argue that rehearsal is necessary for complete memory retention

Question 10

differences between the MSM and the WMM

Answer 10

MSM
More over-simplified than the working memory model
Passive process

WMM
Breaks STM into 4 substores
Provides STM as a more dynamic process
Allows for parallel processing/multitasking

Question 11

What prompted the working model of memory

Answer 11

Their proposal followed Atkinson and Shiffrins ‘Multi-store model of memory’, which was criticised for being too simple. They proposed that STM, or working memory was not just one store, but composed of many stores with different localised areas.

• This came from his findings on dual performance tasks where he found that two visual tasks led to poor performance, however, if one task was visual and one was verbal, then there was no interruption.

Question 12

What are dual performance tasks?

Answer 12

• the proposed three-stores STM stemmed from research using a ‘dual task technique’, whereby performance is measured as participants perform two tasks simultaneously. The following observations provided evidence to suggest different, limited capacity STM stores process different types of memory
• If one store is utilised for both tasks then task performance is poorer than when they are completed separately, due to the stores limited capacity
• If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing them simultaneously

Question 13

What is the central executive

Answer 13

• replaces the sensory register
• directs attention to tasks and determines how resources (slave systems) are allocated
• Allocates information based on modality (i.e. visual or auditory)
• Involves reasoning and decision-making tasks
• Limited capacity
• Coding is modality-free

Question 14

what is the phonological loop?

Answer 14

• Deals with information and language- both written and spoken
• Limited capacity
• Baddeley further divided it into the phonological store and the articulatory loop (repetition)
• Coding is Acoustic

Question 15

what is the visuospatial sketchpad?

Answer 15

• visual and/or spatial information is stored here
  
  • Visual- what things look like
  • Spatial- relationship between things
• Limited capacity (3-4 objects)
• It has two subsystems:
  
  • The visual cache- stores visual data
  • The inner scribe- records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
• Coding is Visual

Question 16

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 16

• The buffer was added to the model later on
• It is used when the central executive has no storage capacity
• Buffers extra storage, however it has a limited capacity of 4 chunks
• Coding is modality-free

Question 17

Landry and Bartling (WMM)

Answer 17

Aim:
The aim of the study conducted by Landry and Bartling (2011) was to investigate the impact of articulatory suppression on the recall of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall tasks. Specifically, the researchers sought to test the hypothesis that articulatory suppression would disrupt the functioning of the phonological loop component of the Working Memory Model, leading to decreased accuracy in recall.

Procedure:
The experiment involved thirty-four undergraduate psychology students and utilized an independent samples design. Participants were individually tested, with one group assigned to the experimental condition and another to the control condition. In the experimental group, participants were required to recall a list of phonologically dissimilar letters while simultaneously engaging in articulatory suppression by repeating numbers ‘1’ and ‘2’ at a rate of two numbers per second. The control group, on the other hand, performed the serial recall task without engaging in articulatory suppression. Both groups completed ten trials, with each trial consisting of presenting a series of seven letters randomly chosen from the set {F, K, L, M, R, X, Q}, followed by participants writing the correct order of the letters on an answer sheet.

Findings:
The results revealed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of recall accuracy. The mean percent of accurate recall in the control group was substantially higher (76%) compared to the experimental group (45%). Despite similar standard deviations between the two groups, a T-test indicated a significant difference (p ≤ 0.01) in recall accuracy. These findings suggest that articulatory suppression impairs serial recall of phonologically dissimilar letters, supporting the hypothesis that it disrupts the functioning of the phonological loop in the Working Memory Model.

Conclusion:
The study’s findings support the Working Memory Model’s proposition that articulatory suppression interferes with the phonological loop’s ability to maintain and rehearse information, leading to reduced recall accuracy. The observed decrease in recall accuracy in the experimental group, compared to the control group, suggests that articulatory suppression overwhelms the phonological loop, preventing effective rehearsal and encoding of information. Thus, this study underscores the importance of articulatory rehearsal in the maintenance of phonologically encoded information in working memory.

Question 18

what research method did landry and bartling use?

Answer 18

True experiment:
IV is manipulated by the researcher. DV is measured by the researcher.
Causality can be determined
Attempt to control extraneous variables, increasing internal validity
Participants are randomly allocated to conditions
The data is statistically analysed and a p-value is calculated

Question 19

Shallice and Warrington (case study on KF) WMM model

Answer 19

Aim:
The aim of this case study was to investigate the relationship between Long-Term Memory (LTM) and Short-Term Memory (STM) in the case of K.F., a young man with impaired STM due to a motorcycle incident, focusing on memory trace formation and retrieval.

Procedure:
The researchers conducted a case study on K.F., a 28-year-old man who had experienced a motorcycle accident 11 years prior, resulting in impaired STM. Psychological assessment revealed K.F.’s inability to repeat letters or numbers, indicating a defect in STM while his LTM remained intact. An experiment was conducted involving the repetition of randomly selected numbers, letters, and word strings of varying lengths. These items were not repeated within a string, and high-frequency 4 and 5-letter words were used. K.F.’s auditory and visual memory performance was assessed through these tasks.

Findings:
The results demonstrated a clear relationship between the length of the string and K.F.’s auditory performance, with his ability to repeat items reliably decreasing as the string length increased. Even for 2-item strings, K.F.’s performance was faulty, and it deteriorated significantly for 3 and 4-item strings. Notably, K.F.’s repetition for numbers was slightly better than for letters. Although auditory problems were ruled out, subsequent experiments indicated that K.F.’s memory for visually-presented material was better than for auditory-presented material, suggesting separate memory stores for these modalities. Despite K.F.’s severely impaired STM, his LTM remained intact.

Conclusion:
The study concludes that K.F.’s STM was severely impaired, characterized by a reduced capacity to retain and repeat items. However, his intact LTM contradicts the idea proposed by the Multi-Store Model (MSM) that information must first pass through STM to be stored in LTM. Instead, the findings support Atkinson and Shiffrin’s contention that separate memory stores exist for STM and LTM. The difference in auditory and visual memory capacity further suggests distinct memory stores for these modalities. Thus, this case study provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between LTM and impaired STM, challenging traditional models of memory.

Question 20

Shallice and warrington evaluation

Answer 20

• carefully designed experiments on just one person as part of a case study.
• The variables of how the material was presented, K.F.’s comprehension and expressive language functions were all isolated and controlled.
• It provides evidence that there are separate stores for visual and auditory memory
• There is no analysis of why the memory for numbers is better than that of the memory for words or letters
• No alternative explanation is given of how auditory material is transferred into LTM if STM is so impaired
• Evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable because it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences.

Question 21

Landry and Bartling evaluation

Answer 21

The study is a well-controlled study with a high level ofinternal validity. A cause-and-effect relationship can be determined.

However, the nature of the study is rather artificial and thuslacks ecological validity.

The study supports the Working Memory Model and is easily replicable. The findings are, therefore, reliable.

Critical Thinking points

• by preventing repetition they supported the idea that the articulatory loop is required to remember information

Question 22

Case study method: (milner) HM and KF (shallice and warrington)

Answer 22

A case study is based on method triangulation with the goal of increasing the credibility of the study
Usually, case studies are longitudinal in nature
A case study may study an individual, group or organisation, based on a specific trait or behaviour
Data may be a combination of qualitative and quantitative data

Question 23

Evaluation on the working model of memory (positive)

Answer 23

• The model was developed based on evidence from laboratory experiments, so confounding variables could be carefully controlled to produce reliable results
• The working memory model provides an explanation for parallel processing, unlike the multi-store model. Therefore this model helps us to understand why we can multitask in some situations but not others
• The shallice and warrington study; case study on KF, revealed that there are separate visual and acoustic stores
• From using PET scans, there appears to be more activity in the left half of the brain of people carrying out visual memory tasks but more on the right half during spatial tasks; e.g. there are separate visual and spatial systems

Question 24

Evaluation of the working model of memory (negative)

Answer 24

• Despite providing more detail of STM than the multi-store model, the working memory model has been criticised for being too simplistic and vague, it is unclear what the central executive is, or its exact role in attention
• The tasks used to try and see if there are different stores e.g. articulatory suppression tasks, have a very low ecological validity and lack mundane realism
• The model only really explains short term memory, so tells us very little about the entire process of memory
• It doesn’t explain memory distortion or the role emotion plays in memory formation

Question 25

What are schemas?

Answer 25

Schemas are mental representations that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. Schemas help us to predict what to expect based on what has happened before. They are used to:

• organise our knowledge
• to assist recall
• to guide our behaviour
• to help us make sense of current experiences

Question 26

What are the differences between schemas and scripts?

Answer 26

• schemas are used to organise our knowledge, to assist recall, to guide out behaviour, to predict likely happenings and to help us make sense of current experiences
• schemas are cognitive structures that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. They simplify reality, setting up expectations about what is probable in relation to particular social and textual concepts
• Schemas are culturally specific but may vary even within a single culture because of such factors as class
• Scripts are schema about events in time rather than schema for objects. We have scripts for how to go to dinner in a restaurant, what happens on Christmas day.

Question 27

what is schema theory?

Answer 27

• Schema theory is a theory of how humans process incoming information, relate it to existing knowledge and use it
• The theory is based on the assumption that humans are active processors of information. People do not passively respond to information. They interpret and integrate it to make sense of their experiences. It is however, mostly subconscious
• If information is missing, the brain fills in the blanks based on existing schemas, which can result in mistakes

Question 28

what is reconstructive memory?

Answer 28

Cognitive Psychologists argue that memory is reconstructive- that is we do not have full memories stored in our brain; instead, when we access a memory, we are actually accessing several different data points.

These are all related to the schema of the object, event or person which we are trying to recall

Question 29

What are cognitive misers?

Answer 29

Cognitive miser: Ability and tendency of the human brain to problem solve in the most simple and straightforward ways rather than utilising more sophisticated and effort-intensive ways

Schemas allow us to look at something and work out what it is without having to be told what it is or having to conduct research

Question 30

How did Piaget define schemas?

Answer 30

cohesive, repeatable action sequences possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.

Question 31

what are processes by which we learn schemas?

Answer 31

• Assimilation is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or event- once a child understands that a dog is hairy or furry with four legs, then all dogs are understood to belong to the schema. It is also when you add information to an existing schema
• Accommodation is changing an existing schema or developing an new schema when it cannot adequately explain a new object or event
• At about 18 months of age, internalisation of schemas take place, and children are able to gain knowledge, not through physical trial and error, but by imagining things and mentally combining schemas in a learning process. This is the same as the adult use of schemas: they become mental representations based on experience.

Question 32

Bartlett (schema theory)

Answer 32

Aim:
The aim of Bartlett’s study was to investigate how memory of a story is influenced by prior knowledge and cultural schemas. Specifically, he wanted to determine if unfamiliarity with a text and cultural background would lead to memory distortion when recalling the story.

Procedure:
Participants, all British, were presented with a Native American legend called The War of the Ghosts. Bartlett employed two conditions: repeated reproduction, where participants were asked to reproduce the story repeatedly over time, and serial reproduction, where participants recalled and retold the story to another person. Through these conditions, Bartlett examined how memory changed over time and with social interaction.

Findings:
Bartlett discovered that participants in both conditions exhibited memory distortion. Three main patterns of distortion emerged: assimilation, where details were unconsciously altered to fit British cultural norms; leveling, where the story became shorter with each retelling as less important details were omitted; and sharpening, where the order of the story was changed and additional details were added to make it more coherent within the participants’ cultural framework. Despite these alterations, participants generally remembered the main themes of the story.

Conclusion:
The study demonstrated that memory is an active and reconstructive process influenced by prior knowledge and cultural schemas. Bartlett’s findings support the theory of reconstructive memory, suggesting that memories are not exact replicas but are instead reconstructed to fit existing schemas, thus emphasizing the role of meaning-making in memory formation.

Question 33

Bartlett (positive evaluation)

Answer 33

Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory has several applications and explains many real-life situations. Thus, in spite of the fact it was carried out in a laboratory, it has high ecological validity. (lacks mundane realism; but has real-world application)

Bartletts study marked a shift towards understanding memory as dynamic and reconstructive, emphasising the need to appreciate its historical significance in the evolution of cognitive psychology

Legal implications, the study’s insights into memory distortion have critical implications for the reliability if eyewitness testimony, urging legal systems to account for the reconstructive nature of memory

Question 34

Bartlett (negative evaluation)

Answer 34

The methodology was not rigorously controlled. Participants did not receivestandardized instructions.There was no standardized time after which participants had to recall the story. He also did not tell his participants to be as accurate as possible.

Although there were two conditions, there was no difference in the performance of the two groups - in other words, the IV did not affect the DV. However, it appears that culture did affect how they recalled the story. But if we focus on how cultural schema affect the participants’ memories, there are several limitations. When we consider culture the IV, then the study is quasi-experimental - that is, no independent variable was manipulated. Therefore, a cause-and-effect relationship cannot be established. Secondly, there was no control group. There was no group of Native Americans recalling the story to verify that, in fact, this distortion doesn’t happen to people in that cultural group

Question 35

Bartlett: research method

Answer 35

True experiment:
IV is manipulated by the researcher. DV is measured by the researcher.
Causality can be determined
Attempt to control extraneous variables, increasing internal validity
Participants are randomly allocated to conditions
The data is statistically analysed and a p-value is calculated

Question 36

Brewer and Treyens (schema theory)

Answer 36

Aim: The study aimed to investigate the role of schema in the encoding and retrieval of episodic memory. Schema theory suggests that prior experiences influence how individuals remember new information.

Procedure:

• The study involved 86 university psychology students.
• Participants were placed in a room designed to resemble an office, with typical office objects and some unusual items.
• They were asked to wait in the room, unaware that the study had begun.
• After a brief period, participants were asked to recall objects from the office.
• Different recall conditions were employed: written recall with subsequent verbal recognition, drawing recall, and verbal recognition only.
• Participants were later given a questionnaire to assess their expectations regarding remembering objects from the room.

Findings:

• Participants were more likely to recall items congruent with their schema of an office.
• Incongruent items were less frequently recalled during free recall but were often identified during verbal recognition tasks.
• Participants tended to alter the nature of objects to fit their schema, such as relocating items or changing their shape.
• Despite not expecting to be asked to remember the objects, participants demonstrated schema-driven recall and recognition.

Conclusion: The study’s findings suggest that schema influences both the encoding and retrieval processes of episodic memory. Participants were more likely to remember items consistent with their schema of an office and were prone to altering their recollection to fit preexisting expectations. This underscores the role of prior experiences in shaping memory processes.

Question 37

Brewer and Treyens evaluation

Answer 37

In the written recall condition, the average number of correct objects recalled was 13.5. The average number of “inferred” objects recalled was 1.13. The objects that were remembered that were not in the room were books (by 9/30), a filing cabinet (3/30), pens (1/30), a coffee cup (2/30), a telephone (1/30), a lamp (1/30), and curtains (1/30). The results do not indicate a high number of errors and do not explain why some recalled these objects yet others did not.

There is no way to verify the schema of the participants before the experiment, but the researchers did a pilot study by using a questionnaire with students to determine schema-consistent objects.

There are ethical concerns about the deception used in the study. The participants had agreed to be in the study, but they were deceived about the true nature of the study and were not told when the experiment had begun. This was necessary to avoid demand characteristics

Question 38

Positive evaluation for schema theory

Answer 38

• There is a lot of experimental evidence that schema are an important tool in encoding and retrieving memories
• Useful explanation for information processing:
  
  • Schema theory provides a valuable framework for understanding how individuals process and organise incoming information. It highlights the active roll of existing knowledge and mental frameworks in shaping perception and cognition
• Explains memory encoding and retrieval: schemas facilitate memory encoding and retrieval by providing a structure for organising and categorising new information. They help in filling gaps and reconstructing details based on existing knowledge, leading to more efficient recall
• Schema theory seems to reflect the biological research that argues that memories are not localised but distributed throughout the brain
• High predictive power validity: Schema theory allows for the prediction of individuals’ expectations, judgements and behaviours based on their pre-existing schemas. It provides insights into how people interpret and make sense of new situations, aiding in understanding and predicting human behaviour.
• Useful practical applications: schema theory has found applications in various fields, such as education, therapy, and marketing. It can be used to design effective instructional strategies, develop therapeutic interventions and create persuasive advertising campaigns by leveraging peoples existing schemas

Question 39

negative evaluation for schema theory

Answer 39

• Schemas themselves are hard to isolate as a construct
• It is unclear how schemas are acquired in the first place and how they influence cognitive processes. It is not possible to actually observe schema processing taking place within the brain
• It does not account for individual differences in having varying schemas in place