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Bio 1500 > Test 4 > Flashcards

Test 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Nephron

A

Functional unit of the kidney

~1 million per kidney

Walls are 1 cell thick

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2
Q

Glomerus

A

Capillary bed inside Bowman’s Capsule

Filters 15-25% of H2O and solutes

Filtration is driven by blood pressure

All molecules less than 5000 moles freely filters into the capsule

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3
Q

Bowman’s Capsule

A

Surrounds cap bed of glomerus

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4
Q

Vasa Recta

A

Vascular system surrounding each nephron

Important for reabsorption and secretion

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5
Q

ECF Osmotic Gradient

A

~300 mOsm in the cortex

~1200 mOsm in the medulla

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6
Q

Loop of Henle

A

Length and size of osmotic gradient determine [urine]

Big loop in the nephron

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7
Q

3 Steps of Urine Formation

A

1) Filtration: driven by BP of glomerus
2) Reabsorption: 99% of H20 and salts are reabsorbed before final urine- very selective
3) Secretion

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8
Q

Reabsorption

A

Selective so wastes are concentrated in final urine

Different regions have different permeability

Ions are transported, water is ONLY osmosis

100% of important things (glucose, vitamins, AAs) are reabsorbed

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9
Q

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

A

Functional unit of nephron/kidney

2/3 of Na+ is reabsorbed here by active transport

  • driving force for most of PCT
  • same proportion of water and ions passively follow Na+

2/3 of initial filtrate is reabsorbed

H+ secretion for acid-base balance

Drugs secreted in preurine is the basis for drug test

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10
Q

Descending Loop of Henle

A

Water reabsorption–> not NaCl permeable and no active transport

Water is pulled out by osmosis by high osmolarity of Medulla ECF

At bottom= 1200 mOsm

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11
Q

Ascending Loop of Henle

A

Salt reabsorption–> not water permeable

Passive transport in thin section, Active transport in thick

Salts are pulled out of preurine as it moves toward cortex by low osmolarity of ECF

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12
Q

Diluting Segment

A

Thick part of ALoH

Preurine becomes hypoosmotic when salts are transported out

At end is ~100mOsm (1/3 of blood)

Lets us get rid of fluids and also keep blood osmolarity

When dehydrated, pee is ~1200 mOsm

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13
Q

Distal Convoluted Tubule and Cortical Collecting Duct

A

Functions are similar and depend on hormones and acid-base balance

Aldosterone= Na+ reabsorbed and K+ secretion

H+ secretion here too

Only permeable to water with ADH (aquaporins)

With ADH ~300 mOsm and without ADH ~ 100 mOsm

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14
Q

Aquaporins

A

Water channels in the DCT and CCD membranes caused by ADH

With ADH =300 mOsm
Without ADH =100mOsm

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15
Q

Medullary Collecting Duct

A

Mostly variable water reabsorbing

Only water permeable with ADH

Very permeable to urea and has urea transporters

When ADH is low=100 mOsm
When ADH is high= 1200 mOsm

Ethanol (alcohol) inhibits ADH and aquaporins

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16
Q

Urea

A

Toxic, nitrogenous waste of protein metabolism

Very concentrated ➡️ 65x in nephron

Diffuses down [gradient] into ECF and is passively transported

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17
Q

[gradient] in nephrons

A

2 mechanisms=900 mOsm

Active transport of salts in DS is 600 mOsm

Urea moving out of preurine in MCD is 300 mOsm

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18
Q

Nonkidney Osmoregularity Structures

A

Freshwater: hyperosmotic, gain water, lose salts

Saltwater: hypoosmotic, lose water, gain salts- chloride cells in gills pump salts

Salt gland: birds and reptiles that have to drink salt water have this near nose and eyes to secrete salt (like chloride cells in fish)

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19
Q

Mendel

A

Studied garden peas

Found concept of dominant and recessive genes

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20
Q

Allele

A

Alternative state of a gene

Usually 2/phenotype

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21
Q

Dominant vs Recessive Gene

A

Dom: allele that’s expressed

Rec: allele that isn’t expresses

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22
Q

Expressed

A

Usually dominant allele

The gene that is shown in the phenotype

Produces functional protein

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23
Q

Heterozygous

A

Dominant + recessive

Only Dom is expressed

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24
Q

Homozygous

A

Both dominant or both recessive alleles

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25
Q

Genotype

A

All genes in a diploid cell

Determines phenotype

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26
Q

Phenotype

A

Physical manifestation of a genotype

Ex: blonde hair

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27
Q

Locus

A

Specific spot on a chromosome where an allele is located

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28
Q

P generation

A

Parent alleles

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29
Q

F1 generation

A

P generation’s offspring

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30
Q

F2 generation

A

F1 generation’s offspring

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31
Q

Punnett Square

A

A way to predict the genotype and phenotype’s of offspring

Shows probability

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32
Q

BB x bb

A

100% Bb

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33
Q

Bb x Bb

A

25% BB and bb

50% Bb

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34
Q

Bb x bb

A

50%Bb, 50% bb

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35
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

When the phenotype of the offspring is different than both of the parents

Ex: homozygous white snapdragon x homozygous red = pink snapdragon!

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36
Q

Gene Interaction

A

2 or more genotypes determine 1 phenotype

Ex: IQ is influenced by many genes

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37
Q

Nonallelic Modifier Genes

A

1 allele’s phenotype is determined or affected by a gene from another locus

Ex: 2 alleles of eye color are affected by other genes

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38
Q

Pleiotrophy

A

Single gene caused a number of different phenotypes

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39
Q

Epigenetics

A

Changes in gene expression (reversible and sometimes heritable) that don’t change DNA sequence

Stem cell differentiation

2 kinds: histone acetylation and methylation of cytosines

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40
Q

Histone acetylation

A

Unwinds sections on DNA to promote transcription -turn on

Deacetylation makes it wind tighter, inhibiting transcription- turn off

Like a light switch- only on or off

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41
Q

Methylation

A

Affects cytosines by DNA methyltransferase

Increases or decreases gene expression

Not just on or off

How genes differentiate during development

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42
Q

Epigenetic Carcinogens

A

Compounds that affect histones or methylation

Increase cancer but not mutagens

Ex: DES, hexachlorobenzene, Ni+

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43
Q

Gene Imprinting

A

Differential sequencing of gamete genes by makes and females

Usually erased, then reestablished in gametes by each generation

Females are one way, males another

Includes parental conflict hypothesis

Also abuse in mom during pregnancy increases cortisol receptors- addictions too

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44
Q

Parental Conflict Hypothesis

A

Males promote growth and oncogenes in offspring

Women inhibit growth with tumor suppression genes to promote survival of her and the baby

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45
Q

Oncogenes vs Tumor Suppression Genes

A

Oncogenes: males turn on, growth promoting

TSG: moms turn on, slows growth of developing child

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46
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

A

Describes non evolving population

If different allele frequency, the population is evolving at that locus

Only works with 2 alleles

P=dominant allele
Q= recessive allele

P+q=1
P^2 + 2pq + q^2=1

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47
Q

p^2 + 2pq + q^2

A

H-W equation

AA + 2Aa + aa

Gives baseline to see if population is evolving

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48
Q

Sickle Cell Anemia

A

Helps protect against malaria

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49
Q

Natural Selection

A

Differences in survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in genotypes

Acts on individuals, but only population evolves

Directional, Stabilizing, Disruptive

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50
Q

Population

A

Functional unit of evolution

Localized groups of individuals of same species

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51
Q

Species

A

Groups of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring IN NATURE

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52
Q

Directional Selection

A

Shifts frequency of a trait in a particular direction

Peppered moth, antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Usually depends on environment and can shift back and forth

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53
Q

Stabilizing Selection

A

Against extremes

Maintains well-adapted traits and eliminates extremes

Human birth weight vs survival

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54
Q

Disruptive Selection

A

Increases frequency of extremes

Can lead to speciation

African finch beaks

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55
Q

Mutation

A

Change in genetic info of a cell; by definition causes evolution

Occur in a gene

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56
Q

Mutation Rate

A

~1 per million gametes

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57
Q

Types of Mutation

A

Point Mutation
Transposition
Chromosome duplication or deletion
Inversion

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58
Q

Point Mutation

A

Change in one or a few nucleotides

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59
Q

Transposition

A

Movement of a gene on a chromosome

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60
Q

Chromosome Duplication or Deletion

A

Polyploidy: more than complete set of genes

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61
Q

Inversion

A

Flipped sequence of a section of DNA

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62
Q

Mutagens

A

Agents that cause mutations

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63
Q

3 Types of Mutagens

A

Ionizing Radiation
UV Light
Chemical Mutagens

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64
Q

Ionizing Radiation

A

High energy X- and Gamma- Rays knock electrons off atoms

Cause free radicals which beak DNA

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65
Q

UV Light

A

Absorbed by Cs and Ts of DNA and polymerizes them

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66
Q

Xeroderma Pigmentosum

A

Rare disorder where people can’t repair UV damage

Full of skin tumors

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67
Q

Chemical Mutagens

A

Alter DNA nucleotides or are nucleomimics that are incorporated into DNA

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68
Q

Mutations in Gametes and Somatic Cells

A

Gametes: usually harmful

Somatic cells: can cause cancer

69
Q

Cancer

A

Uncontrolled growth of cells

30+ oncogenes involved in almost any cancer

70
Q

Oncovirus

A

Cancer-causing virus

Have oncogenes as part of genome

71
Q

Gene Flow

A

Movement of genes from one population to another

72
Q

Genetic Drift

A

Genetic make-up of isolated new group will drift away from its ancestral group

Drift is inversely related to size of new group- smaller group means larger drift

73
Q

2 Types of Genetic Drift

A

Founder Effect and Bottleneck

74
Q

Founder Effect

A

Allele frequency in a small group that becomes isolated is different from ancestral group

As it grows, it becomes very different from the ancestral group

Ex: Amish and Ellis-Van Creveld Syndrome

75
Q

Bottleneck

A

Population undergoes severe decrease in size

Population recovers and grows but retains limited genetic variation

Ex: Cheetahs (

76
Q

Non Random Mating/ Sexual Selection

A

Mates are chosen on basis of physical or behavioral charactersitics

Consists of female choice and male competition

Results in sexual dimorphism

77
Q

Fisher’s Runaway Selection Theory

A

Some traits that don’t enhance fitness are selected for because the opposite sex finds them attractive

Become more extreme over time

Ex: Peacocks

78
Q

How Does Speciation Occur?

A

Populations must become reproductively isolated by some mechanisms

Temporal isolating mechanism
Ecological
Behavioral
Mechanical
Gametic
Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation
Cline
Bergmans Rule
Allens Rule
79
Q

Temporal Isolating Mechanism

A

Populations breed at different times of the day, year, or years

Ex: 13 and 17 year cicadas, Eastern and Western Spotted Skunks

80
Q

Ecological Mechanism

A

Lifestyles or habitats of populations differ

lions and tigers used to be same species
Can still interbreed in zoos but are now isolated because tigers live alone in jungles and lions live in prides on plains

81
Q

Behavioral Mechanism

A

Mating behavior or courtship rituals differ so much that they cant mate

Eastern and Western Meadowlarks seem identical but songs differ

82
Q

Mechanical Mechanism

A

anatomical incompatibility between body parts or in pollinators

If structure of some flowers diverge enough they can no longer be pollinated because pollinators can’t pick up or deliver pollen

83
Q

Gametic Mechanism

A

Gametes become incompatible

Gamete recognition molecules allow flowers to distinguish right pollen

Fish eggs need the right sperm

Hybrids can be sterile (mules) or weak and not competitive

84
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

When 2 pops diverge because of geographical separation

Grand Canyon squirrels have been separated for 10,000 years and cant interbreed now

85
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

Sometimes speciation occurs without geographical separation

usually via polyploidy or disruptive selection

86
Q

Cline

A

Graded change in a trait along a geographic axis

Type of geographic variation among populations to facilitate speciation

87
Q

Bergmann’s Rule

A

Body size in a spp increases as you go north

Type of geographic variation among populations to facilitate speciation

88
Q

Allen’s Rule

A

Extremities are smaller in colder environments

Type of geographic variation among populations to facilitate speciation

89
Q

Punctuated Equilibrium

A

Fossil record mostly shows periods of stasis punctuated by explosions of new spp

90
Q

Adaptive Radiation

A

Burst of new spp from a single lineage

How speciation often occurs

91
Q

Niche

A

Way organism uses its environment

How adaptive radiation works

92
Q

Permean ME

A

250 mya, lost 95% of spp on land and sea lost

During Pangea, lots of volcanos and global warming

Crater 2x the size of Chixulub in Antarctica

May have broken up Pangea and facilitated PME

Took 5+ million years for life to recover- land temps~120-140F and ocean~105F (higher than ever thought possible, no life on land except at poles)

93
Q

Cretaceous ME

A

65 mya, about 3/4 of all spp were lost, including dinos, because of Chixulub

After, mammals underwent a major adaptive radiation, Possibly caused dino extinction and environmental changes

94
Q

Molecular Taxonomy

A

Use similarities and differences in gene sequences to classify organisms

insertions, duplications, deletions, and mutations accumulate over time

More the genes align, the more related they are

Maximum Parsimony

95
Q

Maximum Parsimony

A

assumes that tree that has fewest evolutionary events is most likely

96
Q

Molecular Clocks

A

used to date the origin of the species, based on observation that random mutations accumulate in genes at a fairly constant rate

Must be calibrated against fossil record–> can determine dates of divergence of species

Genes with crucial functions accumulate mutations more slowly

Mito DNA, rRNA, and microsatellite DNA

97
Q

Mito DNA mutations

A

Rate = ~2% sequence divergence per million years

only useful for separation

98
Q

rRNA mutations

A

rate of 1% sequence divergence per 50 million years

99
Q

Microsatellite DNA mutations

A

short segments of repeats, mostly C’s and A’s

mainly in non coding introns

has very high rate of change, dates more recent events (

100
Q

Ecology

A

How organisms interact with one another and the environment

101
Q

Interspecific Competition

A

Occurs when 2 spp occupy overlapping niches and use same resources

often forces 1 or both to only use part of their habitat or niche

Both survive but dont do as well as they would if they were each alone

102
Q

Habitat

A

Where an organism lives

103
Q

Competitive Exclusion Principle

A

no 2 spp can occupy same niche indefinitely

More effiecient spp will eliminate the other

Compete for a limiting resource and then resource paritioning

104
Q

Limiting Resource

A

resource in short supply

105
Q

Resource Partitioning

A

evolution subdivides habitat or niche because of competition

106
Q

Character Displacement

A

spp with overlapping ranges evolve differences that reduce competition where they overlap but not where they dont

107
Q

Symbiosis

A

ecological relationship between 2 spp living in direct contact

108
Q

Parasitism

A

1 spp benefits at the others expense

109
Q

Endoparasites

A

tapeworm and malaria live inside the host

110
Q

ectoparasites

A

mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and lice feed on external surface of the host

111
Q

Mutualism

A

both symbionts benefit

Pollinators, lichen= fungi +algae

112
Q

Commensalism

A

1 spp benefits without harming the other

clownfish with a sea anemone or remoras with sharks

113
Q

Coevolution

A

a reciprocally induced evolutionary change between 2+ spp

114
Q

Intracellular Symbionts

A

include mitos and chloros in eukaryotes

115
Q

Intraorganismal symbionts

A

include N2-fixing bacteria in higher plants

Cellulose digesting bacteria in stomachs of ruminants

116
Q

Interorganismal Symbionts

A

Seen as one organism because they go together so well

ants/plants–> Bull’s Horn Acacia

117
Q

Beltian Bodies

A

Protein on the tips of leaflets for the ants on the Bull Horn Acacia

118
Q

Defenses

A

Camoflauge, Chemical toxins and repellents, Protective devices

119
Q

Aposematic Coloration

A

defense mechanism- co-evolved with toxin or repellent

Skunks, coral snakes, wasps, bees

Startle Coloration, Some spp mimic in Batesian mimicry and Mullerian Mimicry

120
Q

Batesian Mimicry

A

non-toxic spp mimic toxics

king snake vs coral snake and viceroy butterfly vs toxic monarch

121
Q

Mullerian Mimicry

A

diff toxic spp evolve similar coloration

122
Q

Startle Coloration

A

eye spots, have evolved

123
Q

Protective devices

A

defense mechanism

armor, thorns, quills

124
Q

Ecosystem

A

a community of biotic and abiotic factors

125
Q

Abiotic

A

Soil, atmosphere, water

126
Q

Biotic

A

Includes producers, consumers and decomposers

127
Q

Producers

A

photosynthetic plants, some bacteria and single-cell euks

128
Q

Consumers

A

get E by eating other organsims

Can be primary, secondary, tertiary; usually none over quaternary

129
Q

Decomposers

A

obtain energy from dead organisms

130
Q

Food chain

A

in all ecosystems

sequence describing who eats whom

Each level is a trophic level

131
Q

Biomass

A

mass of all organisms in each trophic level

132
Q

Pyramid of biomass

A

created by trophic levels

133
Q

Pyramid of numbers

A

Can be used instead of a pyramid of biomass

134
Q

When can pyramids of biomass and numbers be inverted?

A

When producers are eaten as fast as they multiply

135
Q

How much E is transferred from a lower trophic level to a higher one?

A

About 5-20%

This is why high levels consumers have to feed over a large area

136
Q

When are pyramids always upright?

A

When energy flow is tracked

137
Q

Population biology

A

study of changes in pop size and composition and underlying causes

138
Q

succession

A

Ecosystems tend to become more complex over time because existing spp alter habitat and resources making them more favorable for new spp

139
Q

3 processes that drive succession

A

tolerance, facilitation, and inhibition

140
Q

Tolerance

A

pioneers are tolerant of harsh, abiotic conditions

141
Q

Pioneers

A

early successional spp

142
Q

Facilitation

A

pioneers change habitat, making it more favorable for other spp

143
Q

Inhibition

A

sometimes changes occur that inhibit pioneer growth

144
Q

Climax community

A

changes proceed predictably to here; characteristic of the environment

145
Q

Demography

A

study of characteristics of pops

146
Q

Age structure

A

relative number of individuals in the cohort

147
Q

Cohort

A

a certain age range

148
Q

Fecundity

A

number of offspring produced per year

149
Q

Generation time

A

average time between birth of individual and birth of their offspring

Increasing in the US and other developed countries

150
Q

Survivorship Curve

A

shows survival probabilities with age of a population

151
Q

Life history

A

describes when spp reproduces; how many offspring it produces; when it dies

Reflect Trade-offs

152
Q

Trade-offs on life history

A

cost of reproduction

offspring and size

offspring and parental involvement

153
Q

Semelparity

A

Focus all resources on a single large reproductive event and then die- “big bang”

annual plants and most insects

likely in short-lived spp; those in harsh conditions; those with high reproductive costs

154
Q

iteroparity

A

make fewer offspring per year but reproduce for more years

usually has more parental investment and higher survival of offspring

155
Q

Natural Selection and life history

A

Natural selection favors a life history that maximizes lifetime reproductive success

156
Q

J-shaped curves

A

When populations are growing under ideal conditions; exponential growth

157
Q

R

A

rate of population increase

158
Q

Rmax

A

when birth rate is max and death rate is minimum

159
Q

S-shaped curve

A

when exponential growth can’t continue and ends up plateauing

160
Q

Carrying Capacity

A

K; where pop stabilizes, the plateau of the curve

max pop density that can be sustained indefinitely

161
Q

R-strategists/ R-selected

A

high Rmax

large number of offspring and reproduce often and at a younger age (semelparity)

Produce many small, quickly maturing, short-lived offspring

pioneer species with or with high predation- dandelions, fish

162
Q

K-strategists/k-selected

A

low Rmax, long lived and reproduce later in life

iteroparity- offspring usually in small litters

Large mammals, avocados, coconute

Adapted to have pops stay around K

163
Q

Are most spp K- or r-strategists?

A

Trick question! Most are intermediate

164
Q

Density Dependent Factors

A

increase as pop increases

Determines where K will be

165
Q

Negative Density Dependent Factors

A

As pop increases, so does mortality due to disease, predation, toxic waste or stress

Food, territories, nest sites, pollution

166
Q

Positive Density Dependent Factors

A

Allee effect

167
Q

Allee Effect

A

growth rate increases with pop size

Sparse pops mean trouble finding a mate; larger groups can protect against predation or stimulate breeding

Insect swarms, schools of fish

168
Q

Density independent factors

A

unrelated to pop size

Includes environmental factors (natural disasters)

169
Q

Population Cycles

A

spp pop growth that doesnt fit simple growth curves

snowshoe hare in 10 yr cycles with lynx- dependent on food and predation

Bio 1500 (1 decks)

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