Theory Summaries

Question 1

Deterrence Theory

Answer 1

Date: 1764 -
Criminologist: Beccaria - Bentham
Summary:
A core principle of the classical school and rational choice theories. This theory states that crime can be controlled through the use of punishments that combine the proper degrees of certainty, severity, and celerity (swiftness). Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. Justice System.

Question 2

Rational Choice Theory

Answer 2

Date: 1986
Criminologist: Cornish & Clarke
Summary:
This is the 1980s formulation of classical criminology. While the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced back to eighteenth-century Beccaria, this new verison adds a dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in criminological thought. The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime, and other associated costs and benefits surrounding criminal activity.

Question 3

Routine Activities Theory

Answer 3

Date: 1979
Criminologist: Cohen & Felson
Summary:
This theory states that for crime to be committed, three elements must be present; an available target, a motivated offender, and a lack of guardians.

Question 4

Deterrence Review

Answer 4

Deterrence theory states that if punishment is certain, severe, and swift then people will refrain from committing criminal acts. Deterrence theory is at the core of the criminal justice system and is the basis for most of the strict punishments and long prison sentences. Studies have found mixed support for the empirical support for deterrence theory and rational choice/routine activity theories.

Question 5

Classical School Review

Answer 5

Believes that crime is a result of a choice made by the individual offender. The offender will weigh the potential pleasure of committing an act with the pain if the person is caught committing the crime. The offender will use hedonistic calculus (weighing of pain/pleasure). Best way to decrease crime is to use deterrence and punishment.

Question 6

Biosocial Arousal Theory

Answer 6

Date: 1964 - 1977
Criminologist: Eysenck - Mednick
Summary:
This theory states that an individual’s level of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with aggression and violence and thus are more prone to commit crime. To elaborate, Mednick is better known for modern social social theories and studied the “Autonomic Nervous System” ANS - those with low arousal are more likely to develop antisocial behavior.

Question 7

Biological Theory Review

Answer 7

Traditional biological theories state individuals commit criminal acts because of biological or genetic defects. Crime is not a choice. Can be reduced through isolation, treating, sterilizing or killing the individual. Modern biosocial theories believe that an individual with an inherited trait can benefit from social programs and the trait alone is not enough to doom them to a life of crime. Biosocial criminology is making a comeback in mainstream criminology, although there is still lack of empirical support.

Question 8

Psychoanalytic Theory

Answer 8

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
The cause of crime can be found in the mind of the individual.

Question 9

Psychological Theory

Answer 9

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
A general perspective that looks into the psychological functioning, development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts. The criminal act is only important because it highlights an underlying mental issue.

Question 10

Psychological Theory Review

Answer 10

Crime is a problem that stems from an issue deep in the offenders mind. Problems with early childhood development or development of the personality are viewed as responsible for the deviance. With this theory, crime and deviant activity can be prevented through counseling, treatment or modification of the individual’s personality. Mostly used in juvenile justice, results cast doubts on whether counseling alone can solely reduce criminal activity.

Question 11

Social Learning Theory

Answer 11

Date: 1966
Criminologist: Burgess and Akers
Summary:
In general, social learning theory proposes that both criminal and conforming behaviors are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social influence such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation.

Question 12

Social Learning Theory Review

Answer 12

Believes crime is learned through the interaction with others in one’s environment. Social learning theorist of criminology state that criminal behavior is a learned activity. Social learning theorists seek to understand and explain how a person learns to become criminal and then to develop strategies and programs that model appropriate behaviors.

Question 13

Containment Theory

Answer 13

Date: 1967
Criminologist: Reckless
Summary:
A control theory in which the inner and outer pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless they are constrained or counteracted by inner and outer containment measures.

Question 14

Control Theories

Answer 14

A classification of theories that claim to ask why people do not commit criminal acts instead of why do they commit criminal acts. These theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts and seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so.

Question 15

Techniques of Neutralization / Drift Theory

Answer 15

Date: 1957 - 1964
Criminologist: Sykes & Matza - Matza
Summary:
Neutralization (1957) - Juveniles are able to know the difference between right and wrong while staying committed to society by using learning excuses or techniques of neutralization. There are five specific aspects - denial of responsibility; denial of injury; denial of the victim; condemnation of the condemners; appeal to higher loyalties.
Drift (1964) - This theory states people can “drift” back and forth between breaking and obeying the law. People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social control are weak. When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float back to law-abiding behavior.

Question 16

Self-Control Theory

Answer 16

Date: 1990
Criminologist: Gottfredson & Hirschi
Summary:
A specific type of control theory developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi in which self-control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts.

Question 17

Social Bonds Theory

Answer 17

Date: 1969
Criminologist: Hirschi
Summary:
A control theory that states that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society are weakened or have broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement and belief. When the bonds are strong, an individual will refrain from criminal activity.

Question 18

Control Theory Review

Answer 18

The most important question in control theories are why aren’t you a criminal. Control theorist aim to understand how people are controlled by society. Weak to moderate support has been found for control and self-control theories.

Question 19

Labeling Theory

Answer 19

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
The theory that formal and informal application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts.

Question 20

Labeling Theory Review

Answer 20

Labeling theory does not make an attempt to understand why an individual committed a crime in the first place. Labeling theorist wants to understand what happens after an individual is caught committing a crime and a label is attached. There is little empirical evidence that supports that labeling theory and is criticized for failing to account not only for primary deviance but for lack of consideration for the other social factors that influence crime prior to and after the application.

Question 21

Concentric Zone Theory

Answer 21

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
Refers to the work of Burgress. Looks at city with the graph of a target depicting a series of concentric zones. The zones and their occupants are used to understand crime in a city.

Question 22

Structural Theories

Answer 22

Macro-level theories that account for the differences in crime rates across communities by looking at variations in structural characteristics and conditions of each community.

Question 23

Social Disorganization Theory Review

Answer 23

Social disorganization is a macro-level theory that does not look at the individual offender to explain crime but rather the features of society that may increase crime in certain neighborhoods. Some theorists believe that neighborhoods characterized by constant change and deterioration are more likely to be crime-ridden because they are less likely to be successful in controlling the behavior of their residents. Also examines, unemployment, welfare, community engagement, political activity.

Question 24

Cohen’s Anomie Strain

Answer 24

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
This version of anomie examines juveniles. Cohen agrees with Merton that blocked goals produce strain, however he looks at status not material gain. Juveniles are measured against the standard of the middle class. Lower-class kids who cannot meet the middle-class standards (dress, talk, manners) are deprived. This status deprivation leads to status frustration and becomes deviant acts. Cohen sees one group, a conflict group that values toughness, fighting and respect.

Question 25

Differential Oppotunity

Answer 25

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
Draws from anomie (Merton and Cohen); Social Disorg (Shaw and McKay) and differential association (Sutherland). This theory says there are both legitimate and illegitimate ways opportunities and it is not to say that each person has a accessed to either. There are three groups: criminal (juveniles who are organized and the goal is to make money) legitimate means have been replaced by illegitimate means. Conflict, there are few legit or illegit means so fighting and violence become the primary goal. Retreatist, this groups is a double failure because they cannot fight or make money from crimes.

Question 26

Agnew’s General Theory of Crime and Delinquency

Answer 26

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
A micro-level revision of strain theory. Criminal and deviant acts are an adaptation of stress. Three types of deviance producing strain are – failure to achieve positively valued goals, removal of positively valued stimuli, and confrontation with negative stimuli. Deviance will occur when the response to one of these types of strain is anger. Factors such as peers, beliefs, self-control and self-efficacy will affect the reaction to stress.

Question 27

Institutional Anomie

Answer 27

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
Created by Messner and Rosenfeld. American society is set up to give prestige and priority to economic institutions. The accumulation of wealth and individual success are people’s highest priorities. Prioritizing economic institutions weaken the ability of other social institutions, like family and education, to control crime that occurs in response to the lack of access to the economic sphere. High levels of crime are the result of the setup of American society.

Question 28

Merton’s Anomie Theory

Answer 28

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
Looks at the American Society and what happens when the individual realizes that not everyone can achieve the American dream (economic success). There are five adaptations; conformist – accepts the goals of society and the means to achieve them, college students; innovator – accepts the goals of society but reject the means of achieving them, drug dealers; rebellion – one who rejects the means and goals and wants to replace them, militia member; retreatist – gives up on both the goals and means and withdraws from society, the alcoholic; ritualist – rejects the goals and accepts the means: this person has given up on the promotion and simply punches the time clock to keep what they have.

Question 29

Anomie and Stain Theory Review

Answer 29

Examines what happens when people do not have equal opportunities to achieve the American dream or success. This creates strain because the opportunities may be blocked, leading to deviant behavior. Crime is committed as an effective but illegitimate way to gain success. Anomie and strain have been used to discuss societies in a macro approach or groups in a micro approach.

Question 30

Conflict Theory

Answer 30

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
The idea that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most power make the laws and controls society. Groups without formal power to change the rules maintain their society and norms but are seen as criminal by the larger society.

Question 31

Consensus Theory

Answer 31

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
In general, this theory states laws are the results and reflection of the general society. Views of right and wrong influence the laws and rules that govern society.

Question 32

Functionalist Theory

Answer 32

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
Similar to consensus theory but looks also how the law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society and how it acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful. The law also serves a symbolic function and discourages deviant behavior.

Question 33

Conflict Theory Review

Answer 33

When the different groups in a society are in a conflict with each other. Conflict theory says the CJS embody the interests and norms of the most powerful groups in society rather than everyone. Consensus theory says the law works for the general society because society is in agreement of what should and should not be illegal. Looks at law formation and for conflict theorist, the law is the club that keeps the powerless in line.

Question 34

Marxist Theory

Answer 34

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
Explains both law and criminal justice and focuses upon the division between the ruling-class elite and the laborers. In a capitalist society, the bourgeoisie control the means of production, allowing them to control the political state as well. They use this control to manipulate the laborers (proletariat) and keep them in a powerless position. The masses are thus controlled both economically and legally.

Question 35

Marxist Theory Review

Answer 35

In Marxist theory, the cause of crime is capitalism. The law and CJS are used to protect the interests of the elite and are used to control the non-elite majority. Instrumental Marxists view the entire political state as a tool to rule the class. Structural Marxists believe that in the short term, the political state is independent and can serve the working class. Crimes committed by the bourgeoisies are crimes of domination and repression. Crimes committed by the proletariat are crimes of resistance.

Question 36

Critical Theory Review

Answer 36

Critical criminology believes that crime is caused by a power struggle in society. Suggest we reexamine the scientific method, rediscover the amount of pain and suffering in society and a quest to make it more peaceful. There hasn’t been any support for these theories and none of the theories are testable.

Question 37

Feminist Theory

Answer 37

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
Attempts to define criminology and CJ based on the experiences, understanding, and view of the world as perceived by women. Tries to counter most theories that have been developed and tested because they were developed by and tested on men – women were an afterthought.

Question 38

Control Balance Theory

Answer 38

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
The ratio of how much the individual is liable to control to how much they are able to control. Operates with four main variables: predisposition, provocation, opportunity and constraint.

Question 39

Life Course Theories

Answer 39

Attempt to explain better the stability and changes in criminal and deviant behavior through time and at different life stages.

Question 40

Self-Derogation Theory

Answer 40

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
A theory which delinquency and drug use are explained through the use of social learning, control theory, strain theory, and labeling theory. Delinquency is viewed as the result of the weakening of one’s self-esteem.

Question 41

Integration Theory Review

Answer 41

The process where two or more competing theories are combined to make a new theory which provides a more comprehensive view of crime. Can be conceptual or propositional. It allows for the best elements of multiple theories to be combined

Question 42

Power-Control Theory

Answer 42

Date:
Criminologist:
Summary:
A theory by Hagan in which patriarchal and egalitarian families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more likely than daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less supervision than daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of sons and daughters becomes more similar.

Question 43

Feminist Theory Review

Answer 43

Feminist theory is still in development, and no one version has gained prominence over the others. Examines the role of patriarchy in society and the manner in which women are put in a subservient position to men. Seek to explain why men commit more crime than women and whether theories developed for men adequately explain female criminals. Feminist theories and perspectives often change due to the race, age and status of the researcher and the feminist as a victim.