Thinking

Question 1

Thinking

Answer 1

manipulating mental representations for a purpose
(→ extension of perception and memory → form mental representations, retrieve representations from semantic memory → mentally manipulate representations for achieve purpose)

Question 2

Mental models

Answer 2

representation that describes, explains and predicts how things work

Question 3

Categories and categorisation

Answer 3

• groupings with common/essential properties
• Categorisation= recognising object as member through:
• defining features (essential characteristics, but slow) or similarity to prototypes (abstract, but our own typical /average example, more common and quicker)

Question 4

Concept and hierarchically order

Answer 4

• mental representation of category (that a cat is small, has fur, four legs, etc).
• efficient thinking=choosing right level of sub-level
• Basic level (natural, quickest, broad. Eg: woman, bird, car etc)
• Subordinate level (more specific, like type of dog)
• Superordinate level (abstract, above basic level. Few common features, level of metaphor, living thing, animal, human etc)

Question 5

Reasoning

Answer 5

evaluate arguments, usually for decision making (process of thinking, conclusions drawn from given information

Question 6

Deductive reasoning

Answer 6

• from general to specific, based on logic, premises
• draw conclusion from statement (idea)
• syllogism

Question 7

Inductive reasoning

Answer 7

• from specific to general conclusion, probability

- based on available evidence and past experience

Question 8

Analogical reasoning

Answer 8

understanding novel situation in terms of another one (categorise, interferences, solve problems)

Question 9

Transitive Inference

Answer 9

conclude things we haven’t seen first hand. Tom is happier than bill. Bill is happier than mike. Who is happiest?

Question 10

Problem Solving

Answer 10

transform one situation into another to meet a goal

Question 11

Three components in Problem Solving

Answer 11

• Initial state: current, unsatisfactory.
• Goal state: desired.
• Operations: steps to move from initial to goal state

Question 12

Problem solving strategies:

Answer 12

• Algorithms: step by step, always find solution. Rules for algebra etc. Systematic, time consuming, good for simple problems (well-defined)
• Mental simulation: imagining steps before doing them
• Means-ends analysis: ill-defined problems, define initial & goal state, their differences, Break it down to sub-goals towards solution and then take actions.

Question 13

Barriers in problem solving

Answer 13

• Functional Fixedness: ignore other possible functions of an object (Duncker’s candle problem)
• Mental set: same problems solving technique that worked in the past
• Confirmation bias: search for confirmation of what we already believe

Question 14

Decision making

Answer 14

pros and cons of alternatives to make a decision

Question 15

Heuristics

Answer 15

rules of thumb guiding principles, cognitive shortcuts, to choose alternative, without careful thought/consideration. Rapid, efficient but sometimes irrational

Question 16

Availability Heuristic and Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 16

1. what we can recall easily is most common → biased judgement. Overestimate likely of dramatic events etc
2. estimated probability of event is based on how similar it is to prototype of that event. Ignore probability, pure categorisation by similarity to prototype.

Question 17

Bounded rationality

Answer 17

being rational within bounds imposed by environment, goals and abilities. Not optimal judgements, but good enough concidering the time and incomplete info, abilities etc.

Question 18

Implicit learning

Answer 18

outside awareness. Most learning is implicit.