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biol 107 > Topic 16 > Flashcards

Topic 16 Flashcards

1
Q

Energy has the ability to what?

A

1) do work; 2) bring about change

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2
Q

Cells must continually use energy to do what?

A

1) to grow; 2) develop; 3) repair; 4) reproduce

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3
Q

What are four forms of energy?

A

1) Mechanical - movement; 2) chemical - food; 3) light; 4) heat

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4
Q

Matter is what what type of energy?

A

Potential energy

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5
Q

What are two types of potential energy?

A

1) Stored energy; 2) Chemical energy (food, coal, gasoline, wood)

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6
Q

What are four types of released energy?

A

1) Light (photons); 2) electricity (electrons); 3) mechanical (motion); 4) thermal (heat)

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7
Q

Energy in motion is what type of energy?

A

Kinetic energy

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8
Q

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

A

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change forms (conserved); the total amount of energy in the universe is constant; potential energy + kinetic energy = 100% of the earth’s energy

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9
Q

How does the first law of thermodynamics relate to biology?

A

In eukaryotic cells, mitochondria converts energy stored in organic molecules like sugars into ATP, the form of energy cells can use directly

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10
Q

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

A

When one form of energy is converted to another, some of the useful energy will be lost as useless energy like heat; not all the transformed energy is usable; no conversion is 100%

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11
Q

What is the earth’s external power source?

A

The sun

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12
Q

What are autotrophs?

A

An organism that can produce its own food using sun, water, CO2, or other chemicals (examples: plants, cyanobacteria)

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13
Q

What is photosynthesis?

A

Conversion of the energy in sunlight into energy stored in carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrates

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14
Q

What organisms depend on food produced by autotrophs?

A

Consumers or heterotrophs

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15
Q

What is the relationship between energy and the ecosystem?

A

Energy flows through the ecosystem and useable energy is being lost at every step

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16
Q

What is the relationship between energy and the cell?

A

Cells convert energy stored in organic molecules to useful energy in the form of ATP; cells need energy to maintain its organization and keep all the chemical reactions going

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17
Q

What is ATP?

A

Adenosine triphosphate

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18
Q

Why do cells need energy in the form of ATP?

A

Cells cannot directly use the energy stored in carbohydrates in carbon-carbon bonds, cells can use the energy stored in the final phosphate-phosphate bond in ATP

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19
Q

What does ATP provide energy for the cell to do?

A

Work, it is an immediate source of energy for cellular work

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20
Q

Do all cells have to make their own ATP?

A

Yes

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21
Q

What kind of work do cells do?

A

1) Motion of cilia and flagella; 2) nerve impulses; 3) muscle contractions; 4) active transport; 5) antibiotic reactions

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22
Q

What is metabolism?

A

It refers to all the biochemical reactions that occur within a cell

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23
Q

What are two types of metabolic reactions?

A

1) Catabolic reactions; 2) anabolic reactions

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24
Q

What are catabolic reactions?

A

Breakdown reactions; degradation

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25
Q

What are anabolic reactions?

A

Build-up reactions; synthesis

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26
Q

Describe catabolism reactions

A

Many of these reactions involve oxidation of molecules (so H+ or e- are removed); the result is the release of energy; they include hydrolysis reactions

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27
Q

Describe anabolism reactions

A

They involve the reduction of molecules (protons or e- are added); they require energy; they include dehydration synthesis reactions

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28
Q

What is meant by metabolic pathways?

A

Reactions usually occur in a sequence; products of an earlier reaction become reactants of a later reaction (begins with a particular event, proceeds through several intermediates, terminates with a particular end product)

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29
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Proteins that can speed up reactions (ie. they are catalysts)

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30
Q

Why are enzymes important?

A

Because biochemical reactions of metabolism would take place very slowly if they were not helped

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31
Q

What happens when all the specific enzymes for a metabolic pathway are not present, what would happen?

A

The end products would not be produced

32
Q

Even in a catabolic reaction that releases energy, some level of energy is needed to start the reaction, what is this energy called?

A

The energy of activation

33
Q

What is the difference between the beginning energy of a catabolic reaction and the final energy?

A

The energy of the products are at a lower level

34
Q

How do enzymes work in a catabolic reaction?

A

They work by lowering the amount of activation energy required to start the process

35
Q

What is the relationship between an enzyme and a substrate?

A

An enzyme must physically interact with its substrate (like a lock and key)

36
Q

What is a substrate?

A

The substance on which an enzyme can act; each enzyme recognizes a specific substrate

37
Q

What is the area where the interaction between the enzyme and substrate takes place called?

A

The enzyme’s active site

38
Q

What is an enzyme-substrate complex?

A

A temporary molecule formed when the substrate binds to the enzyme

39
Q

What happens when the enzyme-substate complex reaction is complete?

A

It breaks up, the enzyme releases a product, and is ready to bind with another substrate

40
Q

What can affect the rates of reactions catalyzed by an enzyme?

A

Chemical and physical factors which can affect bonds within some proteins, changing the shape

41
Q

What are the main factors affecting enzyme function?

A

1) Amount of substrate; 2) temperature; 3) pH

42
Q

Describe the impact of the substrate amount on enzyme function?

A

As the amount of substrate increases, the rate of reaction increases; the reaction will level off as active sites become full; once all active sites are full, adding more substrate does not speed up further

43
Q

Describe the impact of temperature on enzyme function?

A

Enzyme activity increases with temperature; warmer temperatures cause more effective collisions between the enzyme and substrate; but extremely hot temperatures destroy the enzyme by denaturing it

44
Q

Describe the impact of pH on enzyme function?

A

Enzymes adapt to work with the pH present in the area where they are needed (the digestive system has areas with different pH); changes in pH will affect the hydrogen bonds in the enzyme, affecting the shape of its active site

45
Q

What are enzyme cofactors?

A

A non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for an enzyme’s role as a catalyst, such as helping the enzyme to become active

46
Q

What is a coenzyme?

A

Organic compounds required by many enzymes for catalytic activity (examples: vitamins, vitamin derivatives, electron carriers)

47
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

When a phosphate group is added on to an enzyme

48
Q

What is dephosphorylation?

A

The removal of the phosphate group previously added to an enzyme

49
Q

What impact does phosphorylation have on enzyme function?

A

It can either activate or inhibit the enzyme function

50
Q

What are two ways that enzymes are regulated?

A

1) Negative feedback; 2) Reversible inhibitors disrupt binding of substrate to enzyme

51
Q

Describe the enzyme regulation process of negative feedback

A

Pathway product inhibits action of an enzyme in the pathway; when the product is produced, it is the signal to turn off the system

52
Q

What are two types of inhibitors?

A

1) Competitive inhibitors; 2) non-competitive inhibitors

53
Q

What are competitive inhibitors?

A

They compete with substrate for the same binding site

54
Q

What are non-competitive inhibitors?

A

They interact with free enzyme to disrupt the enzyme substrate complex; they may alter the shape of enzyme, preventing the substrate from binding

55
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

A cellular process that requires oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide; involves the breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water

56
Q

What is extracted from breakdown of the glucose?

A

Energy (it is released in a step-wise fashion and allows ATP to be produced efficiently)

57
Q

What co-enzymes are included in oxidation-reduction of the substrate?

A

NAD+(or NADH) and FAD (or FADH) (they are electron carriers)

58
Q

Describe the oxidation-reduction reaction

A

Electrons pass from one molecule to another; the molecule that loses an electron (or H) is oxidized (OIL), the molecule that gains an electron (or H) is reduced (RIG); they happen simultaneously (one molecule accepts the electron given up by the other)

59
Q

What are the cellular respiration inputs?

A

Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6 O2 + ADPs + Phosphates

60
Q

What are the cellular respiration outputs?

A

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATPs

61
Q

How many ATP are produced per glucose in an anaerobic reaction?

A

2 ATP

62
Q

How many ATP are produced per glucose in an aerobic reaction?

A

38 ATP

63
Q

What are the 4 phases of aerobic respiration?

A

1) Glycosis; 2) transition reaction; 3) Krebs cycle (aka citric acid cycle); 4) electron transport chain

64
Q

Describe Glycosis

A

1) Starts with glucose; 2) products: 2 NADH/2 ATP (net)/2 pyruvate; 3) takes place in cytoplasm; 4) doesn’t require oxygen (so all organisms can do glycosis); 5) if oxygen is available, the products of glycosis can be used by the mitochondrion to produce more energy in the form of ATP (aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria)

65
Q

Describe Transition Reaction

A

1) Moves the carbon from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria; 2) carbon-carbon bond is broken (lose 1 carbon each); 3) the helper enzyme CoA is attached to the remain 2 carbons (acetyl) to form acetyl CoA; 4) starting material: 2 pruvate (which are oxidized); 5) products: 2 NADH/2 CO2/2 acetyl-CoA; 6) takes place in the mitochondria; 7) oxygen is required; 8) next step depends on how much ATP is available (if low ATP then acetyl-CoA heads to the citric acid cyle; if a lot of ATP, then acetyl-CoA is diverted to fat for energy storage); 8) electron energy is stored in NADH

66
Q

Describe the Krebs (citric acid) Cycle

A

1) Electron energy is stored in NADH and FADH2; 2) 2 ATP molecules are formed; 3) 4 carbons are released as CO2; 4) it has many functions besides energy production, depending on the body’s needs (including: spin off molecules that are made into amino acids, breakdown amino acids to create ATP, synthesize new fatty acids, breakdown fatty acids to create ATP); 5) glucose catabolism (the breakdown of glucose) occurs; 6) NADH and FADH2 then take part in the electron transport chain (ETC) to produce more ATP (they are electron donors because they have hydrogens)

67
Q

Describe Electron Transport System

A

1) Starting materials: NADH/FADH2; 2) products: ATP (3 from each NADH, 2 from each FADH2); 3) where does it take place: mitochondria; 4) oxygen is required; 5) the electron transport chain pumps protons (H+) across the inner membrane, into the inter membrane of the mitochondria (setting up an H+ concentration gradient); 6) ATP synthase is the enzyme in the mitochondrial cell membrane, using the H+ concentration gradient to make ATP, ADP is phosphrylated to produce 32-34 ATP molecules; 7) Energy stored in reduced coenzymes is used to synthesize ATP from ADP + P (energy is extracted from NADH & FADH2); 8) the electron from the hydrogen is passed from protein to protein in the ETS (giving up some energy at each step, sometimes enough to synthesize an ATP); 9) the low energy eletron at the bottom of the ETS is picked up by combining it with some protons and oxygen to form H2O; 4) oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor; 5) only two ATPs are generated for each FADH2 because the reduced coenzyme FADH2 enters the ETS at a lower energy level; 10) cells capture energy from electrons coming off organic molecules to oxygen (electrons are released from NADH and pass through the electron transport chain; as the electrons pass throught he chain, ATP is made; 34 ATP are produced; finally, the electrons combine with H+ and O2 to make water)

68
Q

What has one glucose been catabolized to by the end of two turns of the Krebs Cycle?

A

4 ATP (2 from glycosis, 2 from Krebs Cycle); 6 CO2 (2 from glycosis, 2 from transition reaction, 2 from Krebs Cycle; 10 NADH (2 from glycosis, 2 from transition reaction, 6 from Krebs Cycle); 2 FADH2 (from Krebs Cycle)

69
Q

What is the overall energy yield from glucose catabolism?

A

36-38 ATP per glucose (2 from glycosis, 2 from Krebs Cycle, 32-34 from electron transport chain); input (from reactant) 686 kcal, output 263 kcal, efficiency: 39% (balance to waste heat)

70
Q

Why is there a 2 ATP range?

A

Eukaryotes have 2 less ATP because they have to go through mitochondria cell membrane (active transport of pyruvates through membrane uses 2 ATP); prokaryotes don’t have mitochondria and their cellular respiration doesn’t occur in a membrane bound organelle (no active transport needed, so it has the full total ATP count)

71
Q

What happens when oxygen runs out?

A

There is nothing for the H+ to bind to; the electron transport chain stops; the process switches to anaerobic respiration

72
Q

What happens during anaerobic respiration?

A

1) Only 2 ATP are produces per glucose; 2) lactic acid, which will build up if not quickly removed, is made from pyruvate; 3) fermentation reaction yields various products: organic acids (animal cells) or ethanol, CO2 (plant cells)

73
Q

Describe the fermentation process

A

1) Starting material: 2 pyruvate/2 NADH; 2) products: 2 NAD+/CO2/ethanol or organic acid; 3) takes place in the cytoplasm; 4) does not require oxygen

74
Q

Is glucose the only molecule that can be catabolized?

A

No (cells can also get energy from foods other than sugars; other organic building blocks undergo chemical changes, permitting them to enter cellular respiration at various steps; biosynthesis (anabolism) of any of these molecules can occur, reversing the pathways)

75
Q

What is anabolism?

A

The process in metabolism in which simple molecules combine to generate complex molecules

biol 107 (19 decks)

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