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Higher Biology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a catabolic pathway ?

A

A pathway that breaks down complex molecules into simple ones, often releasing energy. These provide building blocks eg amino acids.

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2
Q

Give 2 reasons for having folds/compartments in membranes ?

A
  • results in a high surface area to volume ratio of small compartments which allow high concentrations and reaction rates.
  • it allows compartmentalisation to keep metabolic activity localises (separate from other reactions)
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3
Q

Give 4 functions of protein in he membrane

A

Pores
Pumps
Structural support
Enzymes.

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4
Q

What is induced fit? Refer to -orientation of substrate

-affinity -contact with the active site

A
  • induced fit is when a substrate enters the active site, it changed shape slightly to fit the substrate tightly
  • this allows the substrate to be in CLOSE CONTACT with the active site which increases the chance of a successful collision.
  • the change in shape of the active site allows the substrate to ORIENTATED in a way that favours the collision.
  • substrates have a HIGH AFFINITY for the active site whereas the products have a LOW AFFINITY.
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5
Q

What happens to enzyme activity when substrate concentration is increased?

A

The rate of the reaction increases as active sites are filled.

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6
Q

What is a multi-enzyme complex?

A

When more than one enzyme are working together in a metabolic pathway.

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7
Q

How is enzyme activity controlled and why does it need controlling?

A

Inhibitors.

The genes that code for these enzymes are always on so they need to be controlled

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8
Q

What is competitive inhibition ?

A

When the inhibitor molecules are the same shape as the substrate molecules and fit in the active site of the enzyme
It can be reversed by adding more substrate.

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9
Q

What is non-competitive inhibition?

A

When the inhibitor molecules are not the same shape as the substrate and therefore do not enter the active site. They attach to the allosteric site that changes the shape of the enzyme, causing the enzyme to no longer fit the substrate. This is not reversible.

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10
Q

What is feedback inhibition ?

A

When the product of a reaction inhibits one of the intermediate enzymes in the pathway. This can slow down/stop the conversion of another substrate to a product therefore regulating the pathway. Cannot be reversed.

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11
Q

Why is negative feedback control useful?

A

Wasteful conversions and the accumulation of products are avoided.

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12
Q

What is the role of respiration ?

A

It releases the energy stored in food and regenerates ATP

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13
Q

What types of organisms respire and why is it important ?

A 
All types (from all 3 domains of life)
It allows them to yield energy.
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14
Q

What is the role of dehydrogenase enzymes in respiration ?

A

The remove hydrogen ions and electrons

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15
Q

What does it mean when a molecules becomes phosphorylated by ATP?

A

When a Pi (phosphate) is transferred from ATP to another molecule. This gives the molecule more energy to allow it to be involved in another reaction.

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16
Q

What is the role of ATP in the body

A

Is it the link between energy releasing and energy requiring reactions. It allows energy to be transferred from one reaction to another.

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17
Q

What stage of respiration occurs in the cytoplasm ? What happens ?

A

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
Glucose is converted into pyruvate in a series of enzyme controlled intermediate steps that result in a net gain of 2 ATP.

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18
Q

What happens to coenzymes NAD and FAD in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle ? What happens as a result of this?

A

Hydrogen ions and electrons bind to NAD and FAD to convert it into NADH and FADH2.
The ions and electrons are passed on to the electron transport chain to make ATP.

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19
Q

What metabolic pathway occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria and what happens?

A

The critic acid cycle takes place. Pyruvate breaks down into CO2.

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20
Q

What pathway occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane? What happens ?

A

The electron transport chain. NADH and FADH2 release their ions and electrons that regenerate ATP as hydrogen ions flow through ATP synthase. Water is also produced.

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21
Q

Give 3 types of substrates for respiration

A

Carbohydrates (starch and glycogen are broken down into glucose, other sugars can be converted to glucose or intermediates)
fats (can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, glycerol is an intermediate substrate)
Proteins ( can be broken down to provide intermediate substrates)

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22
Q

What are anabolic pathways ?

A

Pathways that bring about the biosynthesis of molecules from building blocks (small–>large molecules) that require energy.

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23
Q

What kind of circulatory system do fish have

A

Single circulatory system. Blood passed through the 2 chambered heart once.

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24
Q

What kind of circulatory system do amphibians have.

A

Double incomplete circulation. Blood is passed twice through a heart with a single ventricle- there is mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

25
Q

What is the difference in the structure of the heart in amphibians and reptiles

A

Reptiles have a septum that partially separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

26
Q

What kind of circulatory system do mammals have

A

Complete double circulation. Blood passes through a twice heart with 2 ventricles completely separated by a septum

27
Q

Describe the lung complexity in amphibians

A

Normally gas exchange occurs in the mouth and skin
Lungs used during vigorous activity.
Lungs are thin walled with some alveoli.
Small lung size as they don’t depend on them

28
Q

Describe the lung complexity of reptiles and mammals

A

Have a system of branching tubes that end in alveoli.

Lining of lung is moist with a large surface area which allows for high gas exchange rate

29
Q

Give an adaptation that an animal has for low oxygen niches and where they would need this.

A

Deep diving mammals a) partially collapse their lungs to make them less buoyant which allows them to sink easier with less use of energy b) slow down their heart rate to conserve oxygen as cardiac muscles are not as active.

30
Q

What adaptation do animals have at high altitudes.

A

The body produces a hormone that promotes red blood cell production
This improves oxygen transport to cells

31
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of conformers (2)

A

Exploits low range of niches as they are less adaptable to environmental change
Less energy expenditure- metabolic costs are low

32
Q

What are the advantages/disadvantages of regulators (2)

A

Can exploit a wide range of niches as they are adaptable

High metabolic cost to maintain homeostasis

33
Q

What are endotherms

A

Organisms that are able to regulate their body temperature

34
Q

What are ectotherms

A

Organisms that cannot control their body temperature.

35
Q

Give 2 examples of adverse conditions

A

Lack of food/water

Extreme temperatures.

36
Q

How do organisms benefit by entering a state of dormancy

A

To save energy by reducing their metabolic rate

37
Q

What physical changes happens to organisms during dormancy (3)

A

Decreased heart rate
Decreased body temp
Decreased breathing rate

38
Q

Give 3 examples of dormancy

A

Hibernation
Aestivation
Daily torpor

39
Q

Give 2 types of dormancy

A

Predictive

Consequential

40
Q

How does an organism avoid adverse conditions

A

Migrating

41
Q

How does innate behaviour differ from learned

A

Innate is inherited from parents

Learned is gained by experience or observation of other members

42
Q

What are extremophiles

A

Organisms that are able to live in extreme conditions that would be lethal to most other living things

43
Q

What are thermophiles

A

Organisms that are able to live at high temps

44
Q

Give an example of an extremophiles, where it can be found and how it has adapted to live in extreme temperatures

A

Thermophiles can be found in hot springs and have adapted to Suit extreme temperatures by removing high energy electrons from inorganic molecules to generate ATP

45
Q

Why are microorganisms used extensively in research (3)

A

Reproduce quickly
Easy to cultivate
Often have a cheap food source

46
Q

What do all microorganisms need

A

A food source (chemical or light)

47
Q

Why are microorganisms able to produce a wide range of products in their metabolic pathways

A

They are able to make use of a wide variety of substrates for their metabolism

48
Q

What are the phases of growth when growing microorganisms

A

Lag
Log/exponential
Stationary
Death

49
Q

When do primary and secondary metabolites become synthesised during ,microorganism growth

A

Primary - during log/exponential phase

Secondary- end of exponential/start of stationary phase

50
Q

What 3 structures are involved in thermoregulation?

A

The hypothalamus
Skin
Nerves

51
Q

Describe the role of the hypothalamus in maintaining homeostasis

A

Is the body’s temperature monitoring centre
Sensitive to nerve impulses that is receives from receptors in the skin and responds by sending appropriate nerve impulses to effectors.
Had thermoreceptors that detect changes in the temp of blood which indicates changes to the temperature of the core body.

52
Q

The skin responds to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus and therefore acts as an effector. Give 2 ways in which the skin corrects overheating.

A

Increases sweating so heat is lost when the water in sweat evaporates.
Skin arteriols dilate which increases blood flow to the skin surface where heat is lost due to radiation (vasodilation )

53
Q

Give 5 corrections of overcooling

A
  • decrease sweating
  • vasoconstriction
  • hair erector muscles constrict
  • shivering of skeletal muscles
  • increased metabolic rates to generate heat
54
Q

What is the restriction site on a vector

A

Site where the gene is inserted. It is cut open with restriction endonucleases

55
Q

What is the origin of replication On a vector

A

A series of genes which control self replication of the plasmid
Contains regulatory sequences which controls the genes in the plasmid
Essential for the generation of many copies of a plasmid
More plasmid= more genes = more product

56
Q

Why are yeast cells used in recombinant DNA technology instead of bacterial cells

A

Bacteria cannot fold proteins correctly

Bacteria cannot undergo post translational modification

57
Q

What is a marker gene in recombinant DNA

A

A gene that allows scientists to determine whether or not a host cell has taken up the vector or not

58
Q

Why have scientists developed artificial chromosomes that act as vectors in recombinant DNA

A

They allow a much longer sequence of DNA to be carried

Higher Biology (3 decks)

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