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Psychology > Unit 2 / Chpt. 2 - Biological Basis of Behavior > Flashcards

Unit 2 / Chpt. 2 - Biological Basis of Behavior Flashcards

1
Q

Natural Selection

A

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution.

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2
Q

Mutation

A

A sudden variation in an inheritable characteristic as distinguished from a variation that results from generations of gradual selection.

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3
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

Evolutionary psychology studies the ways adaptation and natural selection are connected with mental processes and behavior.

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4
Q

Behavioral Genetics

A

The area of biology and psychology that focuses on the transmission of traits that give rise to behavior.

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5
Q

Genotype

A

One’s genetic makeup based on the sequencing of the nucleotides we term A, C, G, and T.

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6
Q

Phenotype

A

One’s actual development and appearance based on one’s genotype and environmental influences.

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7
Q

Nature

A

The inborn, innate character of an organism.

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8
Q

Nurture

A

The sum total of the environmental factors that affect an organism from conception onward. (In another usage, nurture refers to the act of nourishing and otherwise promoting the development of youngsters.)

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9
Q

Epigenesis

A

The fact that children’s development reflects continuing bidirectional exchanges between their genetic heritage and the environments in which they find themselves or place themselves.

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10
Q

Neuron

A

A specialized cell of the nervous system that transmits messages.

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11
Q

Glia

A

Cells that nourish neurons, remove waste products from the nervous system, and help synchronize the messages sent by neurons.

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12
Q

Dendrites

A

Rootlike structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses from other neurons.

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13
Q

Axon

A

A long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons, an organ, or muscle from branching structures called terminal buttons.

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14
Q

Afferent Neurons

A

Neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain. Also called sensory neurons.

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15
Q

Efferent Neurons

A

Neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands. Also called motor neurons.

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16
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

The purpose of the myelin sheath is to allow impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. If myelin is damaged, the impulses slow down. This can cause diseases such as multiple sclerosis.

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17
Q

Nerve

A

A bundle of axons from many neurons.

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18
Q

Neural Impulse

A

The electro-chemical discharge of a nerve cell, or neuron. are messages that travel within neurons at somewhere between 2 miles an hour (in nonmyelinated neurons) and 225 miles an hour (in myelinated neurons). This speed is not impressive when compared with that of an electrical current in a toaster oven or a lamp, which can travel at close to the speed of light—more than 186,000 miles per second. Distances in the body are short, however, and a message will travel from a toe to the brain in perhaps 1/50th of a second.

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19
Q

Resting Potential

A

The electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to other neurons.

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20
Q

Action Potential

A

The electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron.

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21
Q

All-or-None Principle

A

The fact that a neuron fires an impulse of the same strength whenever its action potential is triggered.

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22
Q

Synapse

A

A junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron.

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23
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemical substances involved in the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another.

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24
Q

Receptor Site

A

A location on a dendrite of a receiving neuron tailored to receive a neurotransmitter.

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25
Q

Synaptic Vesicles

A

Sacs called synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals contain neurotransmitters.

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26
Q

CNS

A

Brain and spinal cord.

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27
Q

Reflex

A

1an action that is performed as a response to a stimulus and without conscious thought.

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28
Q

Medulla

A

An oblong area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat and respiration.

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29
Q

Pons

A

A structure of the hindbrain involved in breathing, attention, sleep, and dreams.

30
Q

Cerebellum

A

A part of the hindbrain involved in muscle coordination and balance.

31
Q

Reticular Formation

A

A part of the brain involved in attention, sleep, and arousal.

32
Q

Thalamus

A

An area near the center of the brain involved in the relay of sensory information to the cortex and in the functions of sleep and attention.

33
Q

Hypothalamus

A

A bundle of nuclei below the thalamus involved in body temperature, motivation, and emotion.
*Body regulator

34
Q

Limbic System

A

A group of structures involved in memory, motivation, and emotion that forms a fringe along the inner edge of the cerebrum.

35
Q

Cerebrum

A

The large mass of the forebrain, which consists of two hemispheres.

36
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

The wrinkled surface area (gray matter) of the cerebrum.

37
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

A thick fiber bundle that connects the hemispheres of the cortex.

38
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

The lobe of the cerebral cortex that lies in front of the central fissure.

39
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

The lobe that lies just behind the central fissure.

40
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

The lobe that lies below the lateral fissure, near the temples of the head.

41
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

The lobe that lies behind and below the parietal lobe and behind the temporal lobe.

42
Q

Somatosensory Cortex (sensory cortex)

A

The section of cortex in which sensory stimulation is projected. It lies just behind the central fissure in the parietal lobe.

43
Q

Motor Cortex

A

The section of cortex that lies in the frontal lobe, just across the central fissure from the sensory cortex. Neural impulses in the motor cortex are linked to muscular responses throughout the body.

44
Q

Wernicke’s Aphasia

A

A language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning of spoken language.

45
Q

Broca’s Aphasia

A

A language disorder characterized by slow, laborious speech.

46
Q

Aphasia

A

A disruption in the ability to understand or produce language.

47
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Wernicke’s area lies in the temporal lobe near the auditory cortex. It responds mainly to auditory information (sounds). As you are reading this page, however, the visual information is registered in the visual cortex of your occipital lobe. It is then recoded as auditory information as it travels to Wernicke’s area.

48
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Broca’s area is located in the frontal lobe, near the section of the motor cortex that controls the muscles of the tongue, throat, and other areas of the face used when speaking. Broca’s area processes the information and relays it to the motor cortex. The motor cortex sends the signals that cause muscles in your throat and mouth to contract. If you are “subvocalizing”—saying what you are reading “under your breath”—that is because Wernicke’s area transmits information to Broca’s area via nerve fibers.

49
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

The prefrontal cortex may be thought of as the executive center of the brain—making plans, solving problems, and drawing upon sensory information from other areas of the cortex as needed.

50
Q

Endocrine System

A

The body’s system of ductless glands that secrete hormones and release them directly into the bloodstream.

51
Q

Gland

A

An organ that secretes one or more chemical substances such as hormones, saliva, or milk.

52
Q

Hormone

A

A substance secreted by an endocrine gland that regulates various body functions.

53
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

The gland that secretes growth hormone, prolactin, antidiuretic hormone, and other hormones. The “master” gland.

54
Q

Pituitary Gland

-Hormones it Releases

A
  • Growth hormone (causes growth of muscles, bones, and glands).
  • Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) (regulates adrenal cortex).
  • Thyrotrophin (causes thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin).
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone (causes formation of egg and sperm cells).
  • Luteinizing hormone (causes ovulation, maturation of egg and sperm cells).
  • Prolactin (stimulates production of milk).
  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (inhibits production of urine).
  • Oxytocin (stimulates uterine contractions during delivery and ejection of milk during nursing).
55
Q

Pineal Gland

A

The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps regulate the sleep–wake cycle and may affect the onset of puberty. Some researchers speculate that melatonin is also connected with aging. In addition, it appears that melatonin is a mild sedative that fosters sleep, and some people use it as a sleeping pill. Melatonin may also help people adjust to jet lag.

56
Q

Thyroid Gland

A

The thyroid gland could be considered the body’s accelerator. It produces thyroxin, which affects the body’s metabolism—the rate at which the body uses oxygen and produces energy. Some people are overweight because of hypothyroidism, a condition that results from too little thyroxin. Thyroxin deficiency in children can lead to cretinism, a condition characterized by stunted growth and mental retardation. Adults who secrete too little thyroxin may feel tired and sluggish and may put on weight. People who produce too much thyroxin may develop hyperthyroidism, which is characterized by excitability, insomnia, and weight loss.

57
Q

Adrenal Gland

A

The adrenal glands, located above the kidneys, have an outer layer, or cortex, and an inner core, or medulla. The adrenal cortex is regulated by the pituitary hormone ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone). The adrenal cortex secretes hormones known as corticosteroids, or cortical steroids. These hormones increase resistance to stress, promote muscle development, and cause the liver to release stored sugar, making more energy available in emergencies, as when you see another car veering toward your own. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted by the adrenal medulla. Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is manufactured exclusively by the adrenal glands, but norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is also produced elsewhere in the body. (We saw that norepinephrine acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain.) The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system causes the adrenal medulla to release a mixture of epinephrine and norepinephrine that helps arouse the body to cope with threats and stress. Epinephrine is of interest to psychologists because it has emotional as well as physical effects. It intensifies most emotions and is crucial to the experience of fear and anxiety.

58
Q

Gonads

A

The testes and ovaries also produce steroids, among them testosterone and estrogen.

59
Q

Psychoactive Drugs

A

Drugs that have psychological effects such as stimulation or distortion of perceptions.

60
Q

Depressant

A

A drug that lowers the rate of activity of the nervous system.

  • alcohol
  • barbiturates
  • opiates
61
Q

Stimulant

A

A drug that increases the rate of activity of the nervous system.

  • nicotine
  • amphetamines
  • cocaine
62
Q

Substance Abuse

A

Repeated use of a substance despite the fact that it is causing or compounding social, occupational, psychological, or physical problems.The amount you drink is not as crucial as the fact that your pattern of use disrupts your life. Binge drinking, for example, is abusive because it has been associated with health problems such as heart failure and interpersonal problems such as rape.

63
Q

Substance Dependence

A

Loss of control over use of a substance. Biologically speaking, dependence is typified by tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or both. is more severe than substance abuse, having both behavioral and biological aspects.

64
Q

Tolerance

A

Habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed to achieve similar effects.

65
Q

Abstinence Syndrome (withdrawal)

A

A characteristic cluster of symptoms that results from a sudden decrease in an addictive drug’s level of usage.

66
Q

Hallucinogens

A

are so named because they produce hallucinations—that is, sensations and perceptions in the absence of external stimulation. But hallucinogenic drugs may also have additional effects such as relaxation, euphoria, or in some cases, panic.
-LSD

67
Q

Marijuana

A

is a substance that is produced from the Cannabis sativa plant, which grows wild in many parts of the world. Marijuana helps some people relax and can elevate their mood. It also sometimes produces mild hallucinations, which is why we discuss it in this section on hallucinogenic, or psychedelic, drugs. The major psychedelic substance in marijuana is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC. It is found in the branches and leaves of the plant but is highly concentrated in the sticky resin. Hashish, or “hash,” is derived from the resin and is more potent than marijuana.

68
Q

Marijuana

-Health Risks

A

For example, it impairs the perceptual–motor coordination used in driving and operating machines. It impairs short-term memory and slows learning. Although it causes positive mood changes in many people, there are also disturbing instances of anxiety and confusion and occasional reports of psychotic reactions.

69
Q

Marijuana

-Positive Effects

A

Some people report that marijuana helps them socialize at parties. Moderate to strong intoxication is linked to reports of heightened perceptions and increases in self-insight, creative thinking, and empathy for the feelings of others. Time seems to pass more slowly for people who are strongly intoxicated. A song might seem to last an hour rather than a few minutes. There is increased awareness of bodily sensations such as heartbeat. Marijuana smokers also report that strong intoxication heightens sexual sensations. Visual hallucinations are not uncommon, and strong intoxication may cause smokers to experience disorientation. If the smoker’s mood is euphoric, loss of a sense of personal identity may be interpreted as being in harmony with the universe.

70
Q

Marijuana

-Negative Effects

A

Some marijuana smokers have negative experiences. An accelerated heart rate and heightened awareness of bodily sensations leads some smokers to fear that their heart will “run away” with them. Some smokers find disorientation threatening and are afraid that they will not regain their identity. Strong intoxication sometimes causes nausea and vomiting.

71
Q

LSD

A

Lysergic acid diethylamide. A hallucinogenic drug.

Psychology (9 decks)

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