Unit 3 Cognition 2019

Question 1

Name and describe the functions of the two slave systems found within the Baddeley and Hitch ‘Working Memory Model’. (2 marks)

Answer 1

Phonological loop: Stores auditory information that has been received and directed by the Central Executive
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad: stores visual and spatial information that has been received and directed by the Central Executive, as well as constructing and manipulating visual images including details of shape, colour, motion, pattern and position.

Question 2

Outline the function of the Central Executive. (2 marks)

Answer 2

The central executive collects and collates information from the working slave systems while also drawing on information held in the long term memory. By doing so the central executive makes decisions on which information deserves attention and which should be ignored. Including how the information that is being paid attention to will be dealt with through selecting the appropriate strategies.

Question 3

Outline the difference between the Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) and Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) understandings of short term memory. (3 marks)

Answer 3

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin’s ‘Multi-Store Model’, the STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing. It is described as a unitary system (a single system or store). However, Baddeley and Hitch’s Working Memory Model doesn’t describe STM as a unitary store. Baddeley and Hitch state that Instead of all information going into one store there are three different systems for different types of information: central executive, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and Phonological loop.

Question 4

Name and describe the functions of the two parts of the Phonological Loop. (2 marks)

Answer 4

Phonological Store: is linked to speech perception, acts as an inner ear and holds information in a speech based form (ie. spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. Spoken words enter the store directly. Written words must first be converted into an articulatory code before they enter the phonological store.
Articulatory Control Process: is linked to speech production and acts like an inner voice rehearsing information from the phonological store. It circulates information round and round like a tape loop. It also converts written material into an articulatory code and transfers it the phonological store.

Question 5

Provide one strength and one weakness of the Baddeley and Hitch ‘Working Memory Model’. (2 marks)

Answer 5

Strengths:
- The working memory model applies to real life tasks including reading (phonological loop), problem solving (central executive) and navigation (visuo-spatial sketchpad)
- The working memory model does not over emphasise the importance of rehearsal for STM retention
Weaknesses:
- There is little direst evidence for how the central executive works and what it does
- The working memory only involves STM, so it is not a comprehensive model of memory as it does not include sensory memory or long term memory

Question 6

Who is the person that started the theory of classical conditioning. (1 mark)

Answer 6

Ivan Pavlov

Question 7

While classical conditioning focuses on changing ____ behaviours through a stimulus, operant conditioning is learning explained by consequences. (1 mark)

Answer 7

Voluntary

Question 8

Define Conditioning. (1 mark)

Answer 8

The association made by the learner between a stimulus and a response.

Question 9

Define stimulus. (1 mark)

Answer 9

Any variable present in the environment that may trigger a response.

Question 10

Define response. (1 mark)

Answer 10

An action or behaviour that is exhibited.

Question 11

Define neutral stimulus. (1 mark)

Answer 11

Any stimuli that produces no relevant responses prior to the classical conditioning process.

Question 12

Differentiate between an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a conditioned stimulus (CS). (2 marks)

Answer 12

While an unconditioned stimulus leads to a reflexive response a conditioned stimulus which was previously a neutral response that has become associated with a stimulus due to the classical conditioning process.

Question 13

Differentiate between an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a conditioned stimulus (CS). (2 marks)

Answer 13

A unconditioned response is a response to a stimulus which is unlearned, reflexive and involuntary while a conditioned response is a reflexive and involuntary response that has become associated with a stimulus in the classical conditioned process.

Question 14

Before conditioning in Pavlov’s salivation of dogs study what was the unconditioned stimulus? (1 mark)

Answer 14

The food

Question 15

During classical conditioning the ____ is combined with ____ (1 mark)

Answer 15

During classical conditioning the unconditioned stimulus is combined with a neutral stimulus.

Question 16

After conditioning in Pavlov’s dog salivation study what was the conditioned stimulus? (1 mark)

Answer 16

A bell or tuning fork

Question 17

The ability to tell the difference between stimuli, so that a conditioned response is only made in response to the conditioned stimulus is known as… (1 mark)

Answer 17

Discrimination

Question 18

In classical conditioning when does extinction occur? (1 mark)

Answer 18

When the conditioned stimulus no longer creates a response due to the unconditioned stimulus being removed.

Question 19

During classical conditioning what does the acquisition phase refer to? (1 mark)

Answer 19

Acquisition phase refers to the period of time where a response or behaviour is learnt.

Question 20

Within the theory of classical conditioning the opposite of discrimination is… (1 mark)

Answer 20

Generalisationxuen3mh74

Question 21

In the ‘Little Albert Experiment’ the previously neutral stimulus of _____ was associated with ____ to create the response of ____ (3 marks)

Answer 21

… the previously neutral stimulus of the rat was associated with a loud sound to create the response of fear.

Question 22

After being conditioned in the ‘Little Albert Experiment’ the response of fear was associated with not just rats but other white furry objects. This is known as ____ (1 mark)

Answer 22

Generalisation

Question 23

Whenever John hears the sound of the news program at 6:00PM (the time the family eat dinner) he begins to feel hungry as he thinks about food. Identify the neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. (3 marks)

Answer 23

NS: TV sound or news program (prior to conditioning)
US: Food
CS: TV sound or news program (after conditioning such that it is associated with food)

Question 24

In classical conditioning the ____ response and ____ response are always the same or different? (3 marks)

Answer 24

The unconditioned response and conditioned response are always the same.

Question 25

In classical conditioning how does the neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus? Give an example. (2 marks)

Answer 25

The neutral stimulus (e.g. the bell in ‘Pavlov’s Dog Study’) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. the food present) which turns the neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.

Question 26

While Classical Conditioning focuses on changing voluntary behaviours through a stimulus, Operant
Conditioning is… (1 mark)

Answer 26

Learning explained through consequences.

Question 27

Describe Thorndike’s ‘Law and Order Effect’. (2 marks)

Answer 27

Thorndike states that, through observing animals, we learn to respond similarly when we are rewarded, while dropping responses that are punishing in some way.

Question 28

How does reinforcement differ from punishment? (2 marks)

Answer 28

Reinforcement: utilised to cause behaviour to occur more frequently
Punishment: utilised as a consequence to cause a behaviour to occur less frequently

Question 29

What do negative and positive techniques involve (in regards to reinforcement and punishment)? (2 marks)

Answer 29

Positive: the addition of a stimulus (not necessary good)
Negative: the removal of a stimulus (not necessarily bad)

Question 30

Melanie is in jail. What techniques would be utilised within a prison to alter behaviour and what sort of effect would this have on Melanie. Refer to either Reinforcement and Punishment, and whether Positive or Negative techniques would be used. (2 marks)

Answer 30

Any applicable answer. Eg;
- ‘Punishment’ of jail time, involves the ‘Negative Technique’ of taking away freedom out of confinement, with objective of reformation (decrease in criminal activity)
‘or’
- “Reinforcement’ of reduced sentence length/parol, involves the ‘Positive Technique’ of awarding freedoms back to Melanie with objective of reformation (decrease in criminal activity)

Question 31

Define ‘forgetting’. (1 mark)

Answer 31

A failure to access information that had been previously stored in the memory

Question 32

Identify the four main forgetting theories. (2 marks)

Answer 32

Retrieval Failure theory, Interference theory, Motivated Forgetting, Decay theory

Question 33

Define Retrieval Failure Theory. (1 mark)

Answer 33

States that forgetting occurs because of a failure to use the right, correct and appropriate cues at a certain time

Question 34

Compare repression motivated forgetting and suppression motivated forgetting. (2 marks)

Answer 34

Repression is keeping distressing or unpleasant thoughts buried in the unconscious while suppression is a deliberate effort to keep distressing thoughts out of the conscious awareness

Question 35

Compare proactive interference and retroactive interference from the Interference Theory (2 marks)

Answer 35

Proactive interference is old memories effecting the retrieval of new information while Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the ability to recall old information

Question 36

Summarise the Decay Theory (2 marks)

Answer 36

Forgetting occurs because the memory trace (initially formed at learning) tends to gradually fade and decay over time. It contributes to the loss of information in the sensory memory and short term memory displacement

Question 37

Nathaniel recently got shot in the leg during a drive by shooting. The shooter was driving a 2001 Honda Civic. Three days after the event, he saw the same car and made a deliberate effort to forget the drive by shooting. Identify the forgetting theory that Nathaniel is displaying and the specific form of that forgetting theory. (2 marks)

Answer 37

Motivated forgetting and suppression

Question 38

Define memory and explain how memory is characterised (5 marks)

Answer 38

Memory is defined as a psychological version of an original sound, thought, object or concept
Memory is characterised by;
1. Capacity: how much information can be stored
2. Duration:how long the information can be stored for 3 3. Function: what is done with the stored memory

Question 39

Name and explain the three components of memory? (3 marks)

Answer 39

1. Encoding is changing information into a form which the brain is able to store it.
2. Storage is retaining information in the memory
3. Retrieval is the ability to locate and recover previously stored information

Question 40

Sensory memory refers to memory retained for short periods of time (less than 5 seconds). Explain and define the two types of sensory memory. (4 marks)

Answer 40

Sensory memory can be either echoic or iconic. Echoic memory temporarily stores all sensory information of an auditory nature, whereas iconic memory temporarily stores all information of a visual nature.

Question 41

Jon has just been given a list of foods to eat as part of a new training program by his coach. As he is leaving practice he realises he has forgotten the list. Due to the information only being transferred into his short term memory he runs back and asks his coach for the list again. Suggest rehearsal techniques that Jon could use to transfer the information into his long term memory. Include examples for each technique. (6 marks)

Answer 41

1. Maintenance rehearsal: consists of meaningless rote repetition of material to be remembered, (considered least efficient). Eg. Constantly repeating the list
2. Elaborative rehearsal: applying meaning to new words in order to retain them in the memory, (considered most effective). Eg. Making up a poem, song or rhyme to help with recall
3. Chunking: where material is combined into a larger, meaningful group. Eg. Categorising information into food groups

Question 42

Explain the ‘Information Processing Model’ and name the theorists behind it. (3 marks)

Answer 42

Atkinson and Shiffrin suggest that memory is made up of a series of stores, and explains how processes such as sensation, perception, attention and memory are controlled.

Question 43

Define behaviour modification and explain what it is used to treat. (2 marks)

Answer 43

The application of classical and operant conditioning techniques, otherwise known as behaviour therapy. It can be used to treat psychological problems such as fears or phobias.

Question 44

Symbolic markers such as coloured counters or fake money are used to reward behaviour in what technique? (1 mark)

Answer 44

Token Economy

Question 45

Anna has a phobia of snakes. Give an example of a step by step process that may be used in the systematic desensitisation technique for someone with a phobia of snakes. (4 marks)

Answer 45

e.g. seeing a picture of a snake, seeing a real life snake, holding a snake, wrapping a python around you.

Question 46

Provide two examples of what cognitive behaviour therapy is used to treat (2 marks)

Answer 46

Any suitable two illnesses.

CBT may be used to treat problems including anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, uncontrollable anger, substance abuse, eating disorders and other problems.

Question 47

Define positive and negative reinforcements and punishments: (4 marks)

Answer 47

Positive reinforcement
– behaviour increases when it is followed by a pleasant reward

Negative reinforcement
– behaviour increases when it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant reward

Positive punishment
– behaviour decreases if an aversive consequence is after the behaviour

Negative punishment
– behaviour decreases if a pleasant stimulus is removed after the unwanted behaviour

Question 48

Define Recall and give an example (2 marks)

Answer 48

Recall: involves being able to access information without being cued.
E.g. Answering a question on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Question 49

Define recognition and give an example (2 marks)

Answer 49

Recognition: involves identifying information after experiencing it again.
E.g. multiple choice questions

Question 50

Define relearning (1 mark)

Answer 50

Relearning: involves relearning information that has been previously learned.
This often makes it easier to remember and retrieve information in the future and can improve the strength of memories

Question 51

When does observational learning occur? (2 marks)

Answer 51

Observational learning occurs when one observes the behaviour and consequences of another to influence their own thoughts, actions and feelings.

Question 52

Explain what is meant by reciprocal determinism? (3 marks)

Answer 52

Refers to the reciprocal relationship between environment, behaviour and an individual. The environment causes learning and behaviour and behaviour can change the environment.

Question 53

Discuss the factors involved in observational learning. (8 marks)

Answer 53

The first factor is attention. The observer must first pay attention to what is happening in their environment to learn from it. The second factor is retention. The observer must be able to remember what was happening in the environment. The third factor is reproduction. The observer must be both psychologically and physically able to reproduce the act. The final factor is motivation/reinforcement. The observer must have some motivation to perform the witnessed action.

Question 54

Which theory emphasises and played a role in developing observational learning? (2 marks)

Answer 54

Albert Bandura’s ‘Social Learning Theory’.

Question 55

List the participants of Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment. (2 marks)

Answer 55

36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3 and 6 split into 3 groups of 24.

Question 56

State the key finding of the Bobo Doll experiment. (2 marks)

Answer 56

Children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in a physically aggressive manner than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model.