Ut - Utilitarianism

Question 1

normative ethics

Answer 1

The word ‘normative’ relates to ‘norms’ or ‘standards’ of behaviour. When philosophers use the word normative, they are talking about what we ought to do.

Question 2

CONSEQUENTIALISM

Answer 2

The moral rightness of an action depends only on its effects (and not on anything about what type of action it is, nor on anything that we can no longer affect, e.g. the past).

Question 3

Define Ut

Answer 3

The morally right action is the action that causes the most overall good effects ( utility)

Question 4

CONSCIOUSNESS

Answer 4

Things are morally right/wrong solely because of their effects on conscious/sentient beings who care about how they feel / what happens. Without such beings, nothing would be right/wrong.

Question 5

IMPARTIALITY

Answer 5

All conscious beings are to be included when we are considering the effects of an action and none have any more/less importance than any other

Question 6

MAXIMISATION

Answer 6

The morally right action is the action that maximises overall/total utility (as opposed to equalising utility across individuals or giving greater utility to those that ‘deserve’ it)

Question 7

HEDONISM

Answer 7

By ‘utility’ (good effects) Bentham means ‘sensations of pleasure’ (i.e. positive sensations experienced by sentient beings).

Question 8

QUANTITATIVE

Answer 8

Pleasure is only to be measured based on its quantity using the ‘utility calculus’ (Intensity, Duration, Certainty, Propinquity, Fecundity, Purity, Extent). Any difference there may be in the ‘quality’ of the pleasures is not relevant.

Question 9

Psychological (“motivational”) hedonism

Answer 9

only pleasure and pain motivate us

Question 10

Ethical hedonism

Answer 10

only pleasure has moral value (is morally good) and only pain or displeasure has moral disvalue (is morally bad).

Question 11

Explain Bentham’s Utilitarianism

Answer 11

Bentham’s Utilitarianism theory is a normative ethics theory. Normative ethics are questions about principles that inform what we ought to do. Mill’s Utilitarianism attempts to answer the question of what makes an action right or wrong. Utilitarianism means that the morally right action is the action that maximises overall/total utility (i.e., ‘good effects’). In other words, it is consequlianst as the only thing that makes an action right or wrong is the consequences. Bentham’s goal is to produce the greatest good for the greatest number.

Bentham was also Hedonism as by utility he means good effects simply which are ‘sensations of pleasure that are instinctually valuable to sentient beings that are all impartial (all beings are equal). Bethman believed in both psychological hedonism (only pleasure/pain motivates us) and ethical hedonism (only pleasure is intestinally morally valuable). As well as, maximisation which means it maxixes total utility for everyone. The pleasure is measured quantitatively using a utility callus (intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity and extent).

An example of this theory in action is the trolley dilemma. This is where a trolley will run over five people unless you pull the leaver and then it only runs over one. While some will say pulling the lever is actively killing so the five people should be run over. Bethnman states that the five people will have more pleasure in their lives and cause less pain for only one to die. Therefore, the greatest good for the greatest number is killing one person.

Bentham suggests that the principle of utility cannot be proved as it is self-evident that pleasure is the only thing that is morally valuable and should be maximised.

Question 12

HEDONISM for Mill’s

Answer 12

By ‘utility’ (good effects) Mill means ‘sensations of higher quality pleasure’ (i.e. high(er)-quality positive sensations experienced by sentient beings). Only these sensations (and things that are “part of” these sensations) are intrinsically valuable.

Question 13

QUALITATIVE

Answer 13

Pleasure is only to be measured based not only on its quantity but also (and more so) on the ‘quality’ of the pleasures. Higher pleasures are worth more than lower pleasures when deciding how to act

Question 14

What is a relevant judge

Answer 14

a relevant judge ( a person who has experienced both pleasures) would choose the higher pleasure over the lower pleasure, even if it resulted in less quantity of pleasure.

Question 15

Explain Mill’s Ut theory

Answer 15

Mill’s Utilitarianism theory is a normative ethics theory. Normative ethics are questions about principles that inform what we ought to do. Mill’s Utilitarianism attempts to answer the question of what makes an action right or wrong. Utilitarianism means that the morally right action is the action that maximises overall/total utility (i.e. ‘good effects’). According to Mill’s the morally right action is the action that maximises the balance of pleasure over pain, taking the quality of the pleasures into consideration. In other words, it is consequalist as the effects are the only thing which detriments if the action is right or wrong.

Mills was also hedonism as by ‘utility’ (good effects), Mill means ‘sensations of higher quality pleasure’ (i.e. high(er)-quality positive sensations experienced by sentient beings). Both psychological hedonism (only pleasure/pain motivates us) and ethical hedonism ( only pleasure is morally valuable). As well as, maximastion which means it maximises total utility for everyone. This theory is also qualitative as pleasure is only to be measured not only on its quantity but more so on the ‘quality’ of the pleasures. Higher pleasures are worth more than lower pleasures when deciding how to act.

For example, Mill’s would say that you should study poetry with a friend over going to a party because it is the quality of pleasure over quantity. As although you may have more quantity if pleasure it is a lower meaningless quality. Something is considered a higher pleasure if a relevant judge ( a person who has experienced both pleasures) would choose the higher pleasure over the lower pleasure, even if it resulted in less quantity of pleasure. Therefore, higher pleasure is not based on an opinion but instead is a brute fact. This is supported by the principle of unity.

Question 16

Explain Mill’s proof of the greatest happiness

Answer 16

Mill’s proof of the greatest happiness theory aims to support his qualitative utilitarianism theory. Mill’s qualitative utilitarianism theory is a normative ethical theory which attempts to answer the question of what makes an action right or wrong. The morally right action is the action that maximises the balance of pleasure over pain, taking the quality of the pleasures into consideration. Mill’s supports this by saying that my happiness is desired, so it is desirable. Therefore, happiness (in general) is desirable. Only happiness (in general) is desirable, so we ought to maximise happiness. In other words it justifies ethical hedonism by psychological hedonism.

P1- The only and best possible evidence for something being desirable is that it is desired. This is like saying that the best evidence for something being visible is that it can be seen.
P2- Each person desires their own happiness (Psychological hedonism)
C1- Therefore we have the best evidence we could have that each person’s happiness is desired.
C2- Therefore, happiness (in general) is desirable. Assuming that each person’s happiness is desirable then happiness (over all people) is desirable full stop. This is because the ethical point of view is an impartial point of view.
P4- Only happiness is desirable for its own sake
P5- Whatever is desirable for its own sake is morally valuable and so ought to be maximised. In other words, happiness is the only thing that ought to be desired therefore making it a moral ‘ought’ and morally right so we should maximise it. So if happiness is good, then, from the point of view of ethics, we should aim for there to be as much of it as possible.
C3- Therefore, the right action is that action which tends to maximise happiness. (Hedonistic utilitarianism)

This is a non-deductive argument as the truth of the premises can suggest that the truth of the conclusions is probable. In this case it is a strong non-deductive argument as it is very logical but cannot be guaranteed to be true. As well as this, it is posteriori as it is dependent upon experience as you are aware of desires by experiencing them.

Question 17

Explain Nozick’s experience machine

Answer 17

Nozick’s argument challenges Mill’s proof that only happiness is desired [and so desirable] for its own sake (other things that are desirable for their own sake, are so only because they are “part of” happiness). He disagrees with the idea that pleasure and pain are the only things that motivate us, he disagrees with psychological hedonism and so disagrees with the hedonistic utilitarianism that is based on it.

This is because we would not plug into the ‘experience machine’, so happiness is not the only thing that we desire. The experience machine is a machine which produces the most quantity and best quality of pleasure. However, once you are plugged in you lose all memory of life before, therefore artificial happiness.

P1: If happiness was the only thing desired for its own sake, then we would plug into the experience machine without hesitation (assuming that it gave us more happiness than real life would). According to Ultraism of happiness is all that matters, then, assuming that there’s more/equal happiness in the machine, we would plug in without hesitation
P2: However, we would not plug into the experience machine without hesitation. This is because most humans want to be connected to reality and share it with other people.
C1: Therefore, happiness is not the only thing desired for its own sake.
C2: Therefore, psychological hedonism is false as pleasure is not the only thing which motives us.

Nozick’s experience machine is a deductive argument as the premises of the argument can guarantee the premises of the conclusions. It is intended to be valid as it is logical but not necessarily true. Also, it is ‘a priori’ as it is independent upon experience to understand

Question 18

preference utilitarians

Answer 18

They think that the right thing to do is that which maximises utility, however they define ‘utility’ as being the satisfaction of the preferences of conscious beings rather than their pleasure / happiness.

Question 19

NON-HEDONISTIC

Answer 19

‘Utility’ (good effects) here does NOT refer to ‘sensations of pleasure’ (i.e. positive sensations experienced by sentient beings).

Question 20

PREFERENCE-BASED

Answer 20

What matters is whether things are the way that people prefer them to be, whether things align with their desires. ‘Utility’,therefore, here means ‘preference/desire-satisfaction’.

Question 21

Explain Non-hedonistic) preference utilitarianism

Answer 21

This theory is still Utilitarianism so it means that the morally right action is the action that maximises total utility (i.e., ‘good effects’). In other words, it is consequlianst as the only thing that makes an action right or wrong is the consequences. However, he morally rights action is the action that maximises the satisfaction of preferences.

The theory is non-hedonist which means that ‘Utility’ (good effects) here does not refer to ‘sensations of pleasure’ (i.e., positive sensations experienced by sentient beings). In other words, pleasure and pain is not the only those motives us and pleasure is not intestinally morally valuable. However, it is preference based what matters is whether things are the way that people prefer them to be, whether things align with their desires. ‘Utility’, therefore, here means ‘preference/desire-satisfaction. When deciding what the right thing to do is, preference utilitarianism will include all beings capable of having preferences (about the present and/or the future). A preference is satisfied when the state of affairs preferred is brought about. E.g. My preference that England win the rugby world cup rather than not winning it will only be satisfied if they do, in fact, win the world cup. It will not be satisfied by me just thinking they have. Preference utilitarians would most likely take into account the magnitude of the preference when doing the calculation. We will want to know not just what people prefer, but how important that preference is to them.

This is supported by the utilitarianism Peter Singer that It is worse to take the life of a being that has preferences about the future as opposed to just preferences about the present. This may have implications for decisions that affect humans and non-human animals differently.

Question 22

Intensity

Answer 22

how intense the pleasure/pain is

Question 23

Duration

Answer 23

how long the pleasure/pain lasts

Question 24

Certainty

Answer 24

how sure you are that the pleasure will occur as a result of the action (this will be based on knowledge of the past)

Question 25

Propinquity

Answer 25

(vs remoteness): how close (in time) the pleasure is

Question 26

Fecundity

Answer 26

how likely it is that it will lead to more of the same sensation

Question 27

Purity

Answer 27

how likely it is that it will not lead to more of the opposite sensation