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First Year cell biology > Week 2 Endomembrane system, nucleus and multicellular organisation > Flashcards

Week 2 Endomembrane system, nucleus and multicellular organisation Flashcards

1
Q

Are organelles apart of the Endomembrane system?

A

Yes.

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2
Q

What is the largest components of the Endomembrane?

A

The ER.

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3
Q

Is Chloroplasts or mitochondria apart of the end-membrane system?

A

No.

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4
Q

What are the two types of ER?

A

Smooth ER and Rough ER.

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5
Q

How might a virus take advantage of the end-membrane system?

A

The virus may hijack aspects of the end-membrane system in order to replicate themselves (make copies of themselves) and invade other cells.

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6
Q

Explain what the end-membrane produces?

A

Lipids and membrane proteins.

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7
Q

In your head, picture the endomembrane and plasma membrane?

A

Hopefully you got it. Endomembrane has the ER and looks like a ball, plasma membrane has the phospholipids with hydrophilic and hydrophobic tails.

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8
Q

What are three main functions of the endomembrane?

A

First is the production of lipids and membrane proteins.

Second is the detoxification of poisonous materials (mostly in liver) but can result in production of chemicals which are carcinogenic (cancer causing).

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9
Q

What does ER mean when describing Smooth ER and Rough ER?

A

Endoplasmic reticulum.

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10
Q

What is the main function of the nucleus?

A

It holds genetic code, DNA, synthesising ribosomes and allows for DNA copy to RNA (Transcription).

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11
Q

What does the Nuclear membrane allow to enter and leave?

A

Proteins and RNA.

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12
Q

What is the term which describes when vesicles goes towards the membrane, the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and releases material (proteins)

A

exocytosis.

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13
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

When a vesicle is within a few nanometres of the membrane, the vesicle and plasma membrane fuse, realising the vesicles content and allowing proteins and lipids within the plasma membrane.

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14
Q

Explain what endocytosis is?

A

When material can be taken in and out of the cell via proteins. (Remember Endo means external)

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15
Q

What do tubules do in the ER?

A

Assist with the movement of materials such as helping the ribosome synthesise protein.

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16
Q

What is Cisternae?

A

A flattened membrane vesicle found in the ER and Golgi

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17
Q

What is Golgi?

A

Found in plasma membrane and is made up of stacked cisternae pouches

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18
Q

Explain what Golgi apparatus does?

A

It packs and modify lipids and proteins ready for vesicles and to be sent to their destinations.

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19
Q

What are the functions of smooth ER?

A

Synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and chemicals

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20
Q

Picture the Eukaryotic cell and Plasma membrane?

A

The plasma membrane in inside of the eukaryotic cell.

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21
Q

Explain what the Plasma membrane does in simple?

A

Produces lipids, proteins, regulates calcium levels and is involved in the exchanging of macromolecule materials.

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22
Q

Explain the difference between Endomembrane, cell membrane and Plasma membrane?

A

The Plasma membrane is inside of the Endo membrane, the cell membrane is the wall of the cell (the phospholipid bilayer and includes the entire cell)

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23
Q

Explain what disease does to Endo membrane system?

A

Causes dysfunction such as altering the Golgi apparatus.

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24
Q

Explain how some diseases take over the body?

A

Some diseases take control causing dysfunctional endo membrane system, can make copies of themselves by hijacking certain systems in endo membrane system and altering the Golgi apparatus.

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25
Q

Describe what takes place at the plasma membrane?

A

Exocytosis and Endocytosis.

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26
Q

What takes up half or more of a membrane in a cell?

A

ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)

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27
Q

Explain what Endoplasmic Reticulum means?

A

Little net within plasma membrane.

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28
Q

What does the ER consist of?

A

Cisternae and tubules.

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29
Q

In a cell, what is the lumen/ cavity surrounded by?

A

ER membrane.

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30
Q

Describe what the nuclear envelope does?

A

Separates the nucleus from the cells cytoplasm (Its the wall at the nucleus)

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31
Q

What is the difference with Smooth ER and Rough ER?

A

Smooth ER has no surface ribosomes, whereas Rough ER is studded with surface ribosomes, giving the rough look.

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32
Q

What does SER mean?

A

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

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33
Q

What are the functions of the smooth ER?

A

Synthesis of lipids for cell membrane, metabolism for carbohydrates and detoxification of drugs and harmful chemicals and stores ca2+ (calcium ions) in ready releasable form.

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34
Q

What is metabolism?

A

Changes in the cell which allow the cell to stay healthy, grow/ overall regulation of the cell.

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35
Q

When saying the SER synthesises lipids, describe what lipids?

A

Oils, phospholipids and steroids and triglycerides (that is in the livers SER)

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36
Q

How can Smooth ER produce steroids?

A

That in which Smooth ER is plentiful in the testicles and ovaries

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37
Q

What is CYP?

A

Cytochrome p450

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38
Q

Explain is simply, what does CYP does and where it is?

A

CYP is found in Smooth ER and is a metabolism for drugs (it adds a hydroxyl group to chemicals making them less soluble in fatty tissue and more soluble in H2O)

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39
Q

Explain how CYP can make a chemical less harmful to humans?

A

CYP adds a hydroxyl group to chemicals, thus making less soluble fatty tissue and more soluble in H20.

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40
Q

Explain why if Person A was to have a larger ER than person B, why would this be?

A

Because person A, their ER will have gone through detoxification as Cytochrome P450 triggers growth of ER in order to enhance CYP.

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41
Q

Explain why should grapefruit be avoided whilst on medication?

A

Because grapefruit contains chemicals which will inhibit CYP (eventually stopping CYP)

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42
Q

What is the word which means: Related the the liver

A

Hepatic

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43
Q

Explain why alcohol abuse over time must increase, as well as prescription effectiveness of drugs to get the same hit?

A

Because over time, Hepatic SER increases in production.

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44
Q

What term describe the fluid present in a cells membrane?

A

Cytosol.

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45
Q

How does ca2+ get into the ER lumen?

A

The SER contains pumps which release ca2+ from cytosol and ca2+ is high in protein due to high protein capacity.

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46
Q

Explain what low affinity means?

A

A drug and receptor are less likely to join (like magnets remember from Higher).

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47
Q

What does SR mean?

A

Sarcooplasmic Reticulum.

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48
Q

Lipids are made in the Smooth ER, What is made in the Rough ER and explain how?

A

Proteins, remember RER has a lot of surface ribosomes and ribosomes synthesise proteins.

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49
Q

What is RER?

A

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.

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50
Q

Describe where RER is most abundant, with an example?

A

RER is most abundant in secretory cells and an example would be specialised cells which secrete insulin which is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels.

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51
Q

Explain what insulin is?

A

A hormone secreted by specialised cells that regulates blood sugar levels.

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52
Q

Explain what happens to polypeptide bonds when they are formed in RER?

A

The polypeptide bonds (proteins) are threaded into the lumen. Some of the proteins will be secreted, others will be membrane proteins and others will be within various organelles.

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53
Q

What happens to the proteins that RER produces?

A

Some of the proteins will be secreted, some will be membrane proteins and other will stay within various organelles. The Rough ER also produces membrane proteins for lysosomes.

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54
Q

When Proteins enter ER, they are folded, what is the phrases which is used to describe this?

A

Chaperones and Chaperoninis

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55
Q

What does covalent mean?

A

Non-metals with same electrons

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56
Q

Explain what Chaperones and Chaperonins do?

A

Chaperones are proteins which assist with the folding/ unfolding of proteins entering the ER

Chaperonins are proteins which assist with correct folding (good conditions)

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57
Q

Explain how proteins know to be associated with membrane proteins?

A

Extra fat is added to the proteins.

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58
Q

What is a Glycon?

A

A polysaccharide belonging to the carbohydrate group.

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59
Q

What is the term which describes when proteins have fat added to them in order for them to be associated with protein membranes?

A

Glycosylation

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60
Q

Proteins in the ER stay in isolation from?

A

Cytosolic proteins

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61
Q

Briefly explain what cytosolic proteins do?

A

They are for signalling

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62
Q

What does RER produce?

A

Phospholipids and membrane proteins for cell structure formation. It also produces acid hydrolases and membrane proteins for lysosomes.

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63
Q

How will proteins move around in the cell?

A

Vesicles, they are packaged into vesicles which move around the cell

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64
Q

When a vesicle leaves the ER, where does it go and how does it leave the ER?

A

A vesicle leaves the ER from transitional ER and travels to Golgi apparatus.

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65
Q

Describe what the Golgi apparatus does?

A

Its a centre for storing, modifying and directing material to other parts of the cell.

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66
Q

Material from Golgi apparatus end up where?

A

Back to the ER, cells surface or lysosomes

67
Q

What are lysosome?

A

membrane organelles which contain digestive enzymes which break down/ destroy a virus

68
Q

What type of cells will Golgi have a lot of traffic?

A

Secreting cells, that always have material needed and directed.

69
Q

Explain how proteins know where to go in the cell?

A

Either in signal sequences or molecular post codes

70
Q

Describe what glycoproteins are?

A

Proteins and carbohydrate chains (remember glycon is a polysaccharide, a type of carbohydrate)

71
Q

Explain how the Golgi produces mature functional proteins?

A

Glyconproteins in the Golgi are modified via adding and removing carbohydrates (energy and sugar) which produces mature proteins

72
Q

How does a plant synthesis polysaccharides?

A

Not by photosynthesis, but via Golgi

73
Q

Explain what a macromolecule is and an example?

A

Molecules which contains many atoms such as proteins or nucleic acid

74
Q

What is a heterosaccharide?

A

Its made of two different types of monosaccharides, whereas polysaccharides tend to be only a specific version of a monosaccharide

75
Q

What is Pectin?

A

Branched heterosaccharide.

76
Q

Describe what terms are used when the ER interacts with Golgi (fusing) and being shipped?

A

Cis face is receiving and Trans face is shipping

77
Q

Think of the picture of the Golgi apparatus and label in your head the shipping, receiving and what is in the middle?

A

It looks like a stack of brown Pringles, the bottom is Cis face, the middle is called the medial and the top is the trans face.

78
Q

What is the term which describes movement (mostly in Golgi) towards the cells body/ membrane

A

retrograde transport

79
Q

Explain what endosomes are and how they are formed?

A

Endosomes are found in vesicles of nearly every cell, they are formed by exocytosis.

80
Q

What does Endocytosed mean?

A

Its just another phrase for endocytosis.

81
Q

In previous question, proteins find where they have to go by molecular post codes, explain what is meant by ‘post codes’?

A

Short polypeptides

82
Q

What is a lysosome?

A

Acidic vesicles with enzymes which can break down a virus/ destroy them

83
Q

What do lysosomes destroy? COME BACK TOOOOOOO

A

Extracellular (phagocytosis, endocytosis) and intracellular autophagy

84
Q

What makes the acid hydrolases and lysosomes membrane proteins?

A

The rough ER

85
Q

What is the sugar identity tag which is used on proteins before being packaged into vesicles?

A

Mannose phosphate

86
Q

How are proteins resistance to acid Hydrolases?

A

Because of their three dimensional shape

87
Q

Explain how protein know where to go in order to make a lysosome?

A

At trans golgi, proteins are labelled with mannose phosphate (A sugar identity tag) which send the proteins to the vesicles for the lysosome.

88
Q

Name one thing resistant to acid hydrolases?

A

proteins

89
Q

What’s phagocytosis?

A

The engulfing of material, pathogen, etc…

90
Q

In basic what is a vacuole?

A

An empty space (an empty chest if you like) which is covered by membrane and usually contain fluid.

91
Q

How are food vacuoles produced?

A

Lysosome fuse with vacuoles, giving digestive enzymes required to digest food, then amino acids, etc can be used by the cell

92
Q

What category of cells does macrophages and neutrophils belong to?

A

The immune system.

93
Q

What’s a macrophage?

A

A type of white blood cell which engulfs foreign material/ bacteria, etc

94
Q

What makes up the majority of white blood cells?

A

Neutrophils are white blood cells which are typically first line of responsibility to a invading foreign body

95
Q

Explain how a macrophage would kill a bacterium called Connor Laird?

A

The macrophage would engulf Connor, then through exocytosis, take him into the plasma membrane and process him in the lysosomes

96
Q

What recycles defective cellular components?

A

Lysosomes

97
Q

What are defects in autophagy linked to?

A

Old age and diseases

98
Q

Explain what autophagy is?

A

The degradation of dysfunction/ unwanted/ un-needed cellular components

99
Q

Explain what happens to damaged organelles in autophagy?

A

The membrane surrounds the cytosol (is more central than the cytoplasm)/ region of the damaged membrane, (this creates a autophagy vesicle) which fuses with lysosome and the hydrolytic enzymes break down the contents.

100
Q

Explain what I mean by saying autophagy can be used for recycling?

A

After the autophagy vesicle fuses with the lysosome and the hydolytic enzymes break down the content, what’s left is then used to make macromolescules (proteins, etc) and other cellular components.

101
Q

What does autophagy allow cells to frequently do?

A

renew cellular components

102
Q

How many diseases are caused by defective lysosome enzymes?

A

up to 40

103
Q

What do dysfunctional lysosomes cause?

A

Retardation, Physical deformities and premature death

104
Q

describe an example of a lysosome disease?

A

Hunters syndrome which fails to break down carbohydrates as the enzymes are defective.

105
Q

What are the lysosomes of the plant world?

A

Vacuoles

106
Q

How it plant autophagy similar to human autophagy?

A

They take food and are involved in autophagy (Vacuoles)

107
Q

How might a fresh water protist pump out excess water, what’s the term which describes this and describe why this is?

A

Osmoreregulatory vacuoles pump excess water out in order to maintain good salt and solute balance

108
Q

What do Osmoreregulatory vacuoles do?

A

Pump water out, this is to balance salt with solute

109
Q

What size vacuoles do mature plants have?

A

Typically large vacuoles

110
Q

What term describes the joining/ merging or two elements/ components to make a whole?

A

Coalescence

111
Q

Why do mature plants typically have a larger central vacuole?

A

Because the smaller vacuoles are the result of coalescence (parts which join to make a whole)

112
Q

The vacuoles which smaller vacuoles form to make a bigger central vacuole from coalescence, come from where?

A

The Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi apparatus

113
Q

What is a specialised component of the Endomembrane and explain why?

A

The large central vacuole which is made of small vacuoles which have come together (coalescence) in order to make a larger central vacuole, the smaller vacuoles come from the ER and Golgi apparatus (makes them specialised some how, not sure why, guess is because its special?)

114
Q

What is the vacuoles membrane called?

A

a Tonoplast

115
Q

Is the Tonoplast membrane permeable?

A

Yes, like most membrane, its allows movement of solutes

116
Q

What is the Tonoplasts version of cytosol and explain what it does?

A

Its cell sap, it is liquid in large vacuole and is used for storage and mechanical support

117
Q

Explain what vacuoles can do in seed storage?

A

They can provide proteins which enables germination and growth

118
Q

describe what vacuoles store in plants (elements)?

A

Potassium and chloride

119
Q

Vacuoles assist with pollination, explain how?

A

The red and blue pigments which attract bees and what not are stored in vacuoles

120
Q

Why do some plants taste bad and what defines would this be against?

A

Vacuoles can store toxic chemicals which do not taste nice and deter grazers from eating them

121
Q

What happens to most vesicles which are produced by trans Golgi apparatus?

A

They travel to the cells surface

122
Q

What’s the difference between consultive and regulated after trans Golgi apparatus vesicle arrives?

A

In terms of constitutive, the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane on arrival and release the contents. Regulated, the vesicle on arrival will only fuse after a neurotransmitter release)

123
Q

What’s the Genome?

A

Contains all the information of an organism required for its cell types

124
Q

What are genomes made of?

A

DNA

125
Q

What gives rise to phenotype variation?

A

Genome

126
Q

What’s the word which describes when chromatids are joined during mitosis?

A

centromere

127
Q

Picture centromere, telomere, chromatids and a chromosome?

A

Centromere is in the middle, holding the structures together during mitosis, telomere is the end of each chromatid, the chromatid is the cheese puff looking jelly snake thing and the chromosome is the x looking cheese puff, jelly snake thing

128
Q

How do chromosomes avoid degradation?

A

The specialised telomere

129
Q

DNA and RNA are double stranded or single stranded?

A

DNA is double stranded whereas RNA is single stranded

130
Q

What happens during transcription and translation?

A

During transcription, DNA is copied to RNA where it goes from a double stand to a single stranded DNA. Translation is when the mRNA from nucleus takes code to ribosomes, ribosomes attaches and creates proteins

131
Q

what part of proteins does mRNA code for?

A

The amino acid

132
Q

In a eukaryotic cell, where is most DNA found and where may you find small amounts of DNA?

A

In the nucleus and small amounts in the mitochondria of animals and plants and chloroplasts of plants

133
Q

What is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell?

A

The nucleus

134
Q

What does the nucleus envelope allow except separation between nucleus and cytoplasm?

A

Being selective material which passes through the nucleus

135
Q

Week 2 page 25 picture, memories

A

Just a place marker, score 1 to remember

136
Q

What type of membrane is a nuclear envelope?

A

double membrane (just means two layers)

137
Q

Describe where the proteins needed for transcription comes from?

A

The proteins pass into the nucleus

138
Q

Describe where RNA leaves for translation?

A

The nucleus

139
Q

Describe what the nuclear envelops double membrane means?

A

It is a lipid bilayer which has proteins 20-40nm apart

140
Q

Picture the Nuclear envelops membranes and nuclear pores?

A

Think of the yellow ball (found on page 27 of week 2). The outer lipid bilayer and the inner lipid bilayer, the nuclear pores look like cheese holes

141
Q

In each lipid bilayer, how far apart are associated proteins?

A

20nm-40nm

142
Q

What lines the inside of the nuclear envelope?

A

The Nuclear lamina

143
Q

Describe what the nuclear lamina does?

A

Supports the nucleus and gives the nucleus shape

144
Q

How would you see nuclear pores?

A

Using Electron microscopy (due to the low wavelength you will get a good resolution and increased magnification)

145
Q

How many nuclear pores does a nucleus have and what is the diameter typically of each pore?

A

around 3000 pores and a diameter at 100nm

146
Q

How many different types of proteins are nuclear pores made of?

A

100 different proteins, it is a complex thing (what in Biology isn’t lol)

147
Q

Picture two nuclear pores?

A

The basic orange looking one and the one with looks like a basketball hoop

148
Q

What must material for nuclear function pass?

A

Pass into the nucleus

149
Q

What is a motif?

A

A region of a protein, important to DNA structure

150
Q

What’s an example of a material leaving the nucleus?

A

The RNA

151
Q

Explain how material leaves the nucleus?

A

Material leaving will interact with the protein with motifs to allow the nuclear exit signal (like a gate keeper giving a thumbs up for a driver to leave a chemical plant)

152
Q

What does NLS stand for?

A

Nuclear localisation sequences

153
Q

Describe what the nuclear lamina looks like under a microscope?

A

Its fibrous

154
Q

What is the nuclear lamina made of?

A

Lamins (proteins)

155
Q

How would you look at the lamin of a nuclear envelope lamina?

A

Use fluorescent microscopy

156
Q

How many chromosomes does each cell contain?

A

46 chromosomes (23 from mother and 23 from father)

157
Q

Are details of chromosomes found in cells which are non-dividing?

A

You can find details of chromosomes in cells which divide. You can find chromosome territories in non-dividing cells (looks like a world map)

158
Q

What type of cell puts chromosomes into territories?

A

Non-dividing cells put chromosomes into territories

159
Q

What is the condensed form of DNA called?

A

Heterochromatin

160
Q

What is the un-condensed form on DNA called?

A

Euchromatin

161
Q

How is rRNA synthesised?

A

The nucleolus

162
Q

Where is rRNA synthesised and how does this lead to the production of proteins?

A

rRNA is synthesised in the nucleolus. The rRNA then combines with proteins which created ribosomes subunits, these ribosomal subunits then flurry out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm to synthesis proteins

163
Q

Explain how ribosomes create proteins with mRNA and tRNA?

A

The nucleus includes certain genes into mRNA, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and is translated into protein. tRNA bring amino acids, a delivery requested by mRNA. Thus, mRNA code is converted into protein by the ribosome.

First Year cell biology (10 decks)

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