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Neurocognition RESIT > Week 2: Genes and pharmacology > Flashcards

Week 2: Genes and pharmacology Flashcards

1
Q

What does a neuron consist of?

A

Soma, dendrites and axon

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2
Q

What is the soma, what is it involved in and what are the structures inside it called?

A
  1. Central part of the neuron/cell body of the neuron
  2. Involved in the production of neurotransmitters
  3. Structures inside are called organelles
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3
Q

What is the fluid inside the cell called?

A

Cytosol

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4
Q

What is the difference between cytoplasm and cytosol?

A

Cytoplasm is the substance between a cell’s membrane (its outside layer) and its nucleus (its core).

Cytosol is the fluid part of cytoplasm.

Cytoplasm also consists of organelles and other parts, which float in the cytosol.

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5
Q

Which organelles is not part of the cytoplasm? (i.e. everything within the cell membrane)

A

Nucleus (the membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell that contains the chromosomes)

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6
Q

What does the nucleus contain?

A

DNA

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7
Q

What specific parts of DNA assembles the cell?

A

Genes

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8
Q

What does gene expression mean?

A

‘Reading’ a cell (the process by which the information encoded in a gene is turned into a function)

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9
Q

What is the final product of gene expression?

A

The synthesis of molecules (protein)

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10
Q

Where does protein synthesis take place?

A

Cytoplasm

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11
Q

What carries the genetic message to the sites of the protein syntesis?

A

mRNA

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12
Q

What is transcription?

A

The process of assembling a piece of mRNA that contains the information of the gene

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13
Q

What do we call the region where the RNA synthesizing enzyme, RNA polymerase, binds to?

A

The promoter

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14
Q

What do we call the stop sequence that the RNA polymerase recognizes as the end point of the transcription?

A

The terminator

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15
Q

What are the parts of DNA called that can not be used to code a protein?

A

Introns and exons

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16
Q

The process of assembling proteins from amino acids under direction of mRNA is called?

A

Translation

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17
Q

What do we call the entire lenght of DNA that comprises the genetic information in our chromosomes?

A

Genome

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18
Q

What does gene copy number variations mean?

A

Having duplicated genes (molecular phenomenon in which sequences of the genome are repeated, and the number of repeats varies between individuals of the same species)

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19
Q

Many of our genes have small mutations, how do we call that?

A

Single nucleotide polymorphisms

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20
Q

What is the process called in which drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized and excreted in the body?

A

Pharmocokinetics

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21
Q

What kind of injection is an intraperitoneal injection?

A

Drug gets injected into the space around the abdominal organs

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22
Q

A drugs margin of safety is determined by the … effect and the … effect, and the measure is called …

A

Analgesic/pain killing (relieve pain), depressant (reduce arousal and stimulation), therapeutic index (a ratio that compares the blood concentration at which a drug becomes toxic and the concentration at which the drug is effective)

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23
Q

The most optimal drug has (high/low) affinity for sites of action that produce therapeutic effects and will produce effects at a (high/low) concentration and a (high/low) affinity for sites that produce toxic side effects

A

High, low, low

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24
Q

What is a drug called when it blocks or inibits the postsynaptic effects (blocks the activation of certain receptors on cells, preventing a biological response)?

A

Antagonist

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25
Q

What is a drug called when it facillitates the postsynaptic effects?

A

Agonists

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26
Q

What is a drug called when it prevents the neurotransmitter from opening the ion channel?

A

Receptor blocker or direct antagonists

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27
Q

What does a indirect antagonist and indirect agonist do?

A

Antagonist: attaches to one of the alternative sites and prevents the ion channel from opening
Agonist: attaches to an alternative site and facillitates the opening of the ion channel

28
Q

With which two neurotransmitters in the brain are the most synaptic communication accomplished?

A

Glutamate and GABA

29
Q

With which neurotransmitter are all muscular movements accomplished?

A

Acetylcholine (Ach)

30
Q

Which two types of Acetylcholine (Ach) receptors are there?

A

Ionotropic: nicotine receptors (convert extracellular chemical signals (neurotransmitters) into electrical information)
Metabotropic: muscarinic receptors (participate in the modulation of synaptic transmission and neuronal excitability throughout the central nervous system)

31
Q

Which neurotransmitters belong to the subclass catecholamines (increase heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, muscle strength, and mental alertness)?

A

Dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine

32
Q

In what functions is dopamine implicated (3)?

A
  1. Movement
  2. Attention
  3. Learning
33
Q

How does the synthesis of dopamine go?

A

An enzyme turns the procursor, tyrosine, into L-DOPA and another enzyme turns this into dopamine

34
Q

Name three major dopamine pathways

A
  1. Nigrostriatal system
  2. Mesolimbic system
  3. Mesocortical system
35
Q

What are the behavioural effects of the nigrostriatal system, mesolimbic system and mesocortical system (4)?

A
  1. Cortical movement
  2. Reinforcement effect of drugs
  3. Short term memories/planning
  4. Cognition, reward, and addiction
36
Q

What substance are people with Parkinson given and why not just dopamine?

A

L-DOPA, because dopamine can’t cross the blood brain barrier

37
Q

Where are the cell bodies of norepinephrine located (3)?

A
  1. Pons
  2. Medulla
  3. One region of the thalamus
38
Q

Where does serotonin play a role in (5)?

A
  1. Regulation of mood
  2. In control of sleep
  3. Eating
  4. Arousal
  5. Pain
39
Q

What is the precursor of serotonin?

A

Tryptophan

40
Q

Where does histamine play a role in (2)?

A
  1. Wakefullness
  2. Control of the digestive system and immune system
41
Q

Which are the four major glutamine receptors?

A
  1. NMDA
  2. AMPA
  3. Kainate
  4. Metabotropic glutamate
42
Q

Is GABA an excitatory or an inhibitory neurotransmitter?

A

Inhibitory (it functions to reduce neuronal excitability by inhibiting nerve transmission)

43
Q

Is glumate an excitatory or an inhibitory neurotransmitter?

A

Excitatory (it increases the likelihood that the targeted postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential, which will lead to more firing and communication throughout the nervous system)

44
Q

The removal of which inhibitory neurotransmitter causes the effect of muscles to contract continously?

A

Glycine (the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brainstem and spinal cord, where it participates in a variety of motor and sensory functions)

45
Q

There is no mechanism for reuptake and recycling of …, they are destroyed by enzymes

A

Peptides (neuropeptide can modulate (increase or decrease) a postsynaptic response to a neurotransmitter)

46
Q

Substance derived from what can serve to transmit messages between cells?

A

Lipids (involved in developmental, maintenance and many other cellular processes of the brain)

47
Q

Which theory suggests that variation in a trait is caused by many genes, each of which contribute to the phenotype?

A

Polygenic inheritance (for example hair color, height or skin color)

48
Q

What refers to the structure and organisation of cognition?

A

Phenotypic architecture

49
Q

Which phenomena is the process by which an individual’s genotype influences the environment that they inhabit?

A

Gene-environment correlation (for example: students with greater intellectual abilities may select classes that are more challenging, which further increases their knowledge)

50
Q

Name three types of gene-environment correlations

A
  1. Active (preference for environment will be a reflection of genetic makeup)
  2. Evocative/reactive (the association between an individual’s genetically influenced behavior and others’ reactions to that behavior)
  3. Passive (a person’s environment as a child is influenced by the genetic makeup of the parents which influences their choices in life)
51
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The genetic makeup of an organism; in other words, it describes an organism’s complete set of genes

The genotype is a set of genes in DNA responsible for unique traits or characteristics

52
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

Observable characteristics or traits

Phenotype is the physical appearance or characteristic of an organism

53
Q

What is an allele?

A

Different versions of a gene

54
Q

Can Y-linked traits be dominant or recessive inherited?

A

No, Y-linked traits never occur in females, and occur in all male descendants of an affected male. The concepts of dominant and recessive do not apply to Y-linked traits, as only one allele (on the Y) is ever present in any one (male) individual

55
Q

What does X-linked dominant inheritance mean?

A

X-linked dominant inheritance occurs when a gene responsible for a trait or disorder is located on the X chromosome. The gene acts in a dominant manner. This means that both males and females can display the trait or disorder when they have only one copy of the gene inherited from a parent

56
Q

What does X-linked recessive inheritance mean?

A

X-linked recessive inheritance means that a gene responsible for a trait or disorder is located on the X chromosome

When a son receives the affected X-chromosome from his mother, he is affected (sons cannnot become carriers).
When a daughter receives the affected X-chromosome from her mother, she will become a carrier. Only when a daughter inherits an affected X-chromosome from both father and mother she will become affected
Daughters from an affected father automatically become carrier (or affected when they receive an affected X-chromosome from their mother)

X-linked recessive disorder often have affected males, less affected females

57
Q

Explain homozygous and heterozygous

A

Homozygous describes a genotype consisting of two identical alleles at a given locus (eye colour: two blue alleles)

Heterozygous describes a genotype consisting of two different alleles at a locus (eye colour: one blue allele and one brown allele)

58
Q

Is duchene muscular dystrophy a dominant or recessive X linked disorder?

A

Recessive X linked disorder (sons have a higher chance for this disorder, when they receive a X from their mother with the disease, they will be affected. Daughters can become carriers without being affected, sons don’t become carriers/only affected)

59
Q

What are knock-out mice and knock-in mice?

A

Knock-out mice: gene is removed
Knock-in mice: original gene is replaced

60
Q

What is the candidate gene approach?

A

Conducting genetic association studies focused on associations between genetic variation within pre-specified genes of interest, and phenotypes or disease states

61
Q

What is the genome wide association study?

A

Examines alle genes comparing two groups (helps scientists identify genes associated with a particular disease or another trait)

62
Q

Which gene converts dopamine into norepinephrine?

A

DBH gene (associated with ADHD)

63
Q

What is the precursor of L-DOPA and into what does L-DOPA convert?

A

Tyrosine and dopamine

64
Q

What is the difference between catecholamines and indolamines?

A

Catecholamines derive from phenylalanine and include dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine -> increase heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, muscle strength, and mental alertness

Indolamines are synthesized from tryptophan and include serotonin -> inhibits metabolism

65
Q

To which category do dopamine, noradrenaline (norepinephrine), and adrenaline (epinephrine) belong?

A

Catecholamines (neurotransmitters in the central and peripheral nervous systems as well as hormones in the endocrine system)

66
Q

To which category does serotonin belong?

A

Indolamines

Neurocognition RESIT (9 decks)

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