What makes a criminal? (Bio)

Question 1

Physiological Explanation: MAOA gene

Answer 1

Brunner et al 1993

5 members of a dutch family (diagnosed with borderline mental retardation & had shown violent behaviour)

Urine samples were collected and deficits on the MAOA gene

Brunner concluded that this gene mutation resulted in serotonin not being broken down, resulting in aggression

Question 2

Issue with Brunner’s study on the Dutch family

Answer 2

Cannot rule out other reasons for criminality; they were brought up in the same family so most likely had similar upbringing. The study ignored the nurture element involved; they may have being conditioned to act that way

Question 3

Explain what is meant by an interactionist explanation in terms of the MAOA gene (including Caspi)

Answer 3

Criminality is a mixture of physiological and non physiological factors

For example, having the MAOA gene predisposes individuals to act aggressively however this will only occur if there is a precipitating factor in the environment. (diathesis stress hypothesis)

Capsi illustrated this:
500m children
Found that those with MAOA deficits were most likely to show antisocial behaviour but only if they were mistreated as a child.

Question 4

Findings from Glenn & Raine’s study into hormones as a physiological factor of criminality.

Answer 4

Distrupted functioning of the hypothalamus - seen in antisocial individuals

Low levels of cortisol in childhood predicts aggression 5 years later

High levels of testosterone at 10-12 can predict physical assaults aged 12-14

High levels of testosterone at 16 are associated with crime in adulthood

Question 5

Explain Choy’s study into low heart rate as an explanation to criminality. (physiological)

Answer 5

Hypothesis: Low resting HR explains the relationship between gender and crime.

Sample: 894 from Mauritius Child Health Project (11 yrs old)

Procedure: Measured their resting HR and then checked official conviction records & used self reports at 23 yrs old.

Found that resting HR accounted for 5-17% of the gender difference in crimes such as violence and drug use.

Conclusion: Low resting HR is an early biological marker for a gender gap in later criminal behaviour

Question 6

Explain Farrington’s study into social explanations as a factor to criminality

Answer 6

Suggests that criminality is influenced by factors related to family life such as parental criminality or parental absence.

411m from a working class area in London

Longitudinal: started at 8 yrs old until 48 yrs old.

They were interviewed periodically about things such as their living circumstances & leisure activities.

Data was also collected from teachers regarding attainment

Criminal records were obtained from the self reports and the central Criminal Record Office.

The most important risk factors to criminality were: family criminals, loss of mother, tendency towards daring behaviour, low attainment and poverty.

Conclusion: Disruption in families can play a strong role in the development of criminal behaviour especially where the mother is absent

Question 7

Explain Sutherland’s study into norms as a factor to criminality.

Answer 7

Differential association theory proposes that criminality is learned through interactions with others (SLT)

Attitudes, motives and techniques learned through family, friends or communities like gangs.

Through interaction people gain norms and values of criminal groups in preference to those of non criminal groups

Frequency and intensity of interaction is important

Evidence: Crime tends to run in families. Ronald Akers found that 68% of the variance in marijuana use of 2,500 Americans could be explained in terms of differential association & reinforcement from peers

Question 8

Cognitive explanation for criminality (Kohlberg and Palmer & Hollin)

Answer 8

Focus on the level of moral reasoning shown by criminals:

Kohlberg’s stage:
Pre-conventional: People behave to avoid punishment

Palmer & Hollin:
Compared moral reasoning of male delinquents and male and female non delinquents using 11 moral dilemmas.

Delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning (pre conventional level).

Question 9

Check your understanding:
Explain the role of testosterone in criminal behaviour using evidence from psychological research to support your answer.

Answer 9

Glenn & Raine found that high levels of testosterone at ages 10-12 predicts aggression such as physical assaults at 12-14. Also, high testosterone at 16 can predict criminality in early adulthood

Question 10

Check your understanding:
Explain how damage to the prefrontal cortex can explain impulsive behaviour

Answer 10

The prefrontal cortex is associated with rational thinking & self restraint, if this area is damaged then it leads to impulsivity and a lack of self control.

Question 11

Check your understanding:
What are the most important childhood risk factors for later offending behaviour that Farrington identified?

Answer 11

Family criminality
loss of mother
tendency towards daring behaviour
low school attainment
poverty
poor parenting

Question 12

Raine: Design

Answer 12

Quasi experiment

IV = murderer or not murderer
DV = activity in specific brain regions as assessed by PET scans

Matched pairs design

Question 13

Raine: How were the pairs matched

Answer 13

Age & Gender

Question 14

Raine: Sample

Answer 14

41 murderers (39m, 2f)
Mean age = 34.3
All pleaded NGRI or incompetence to stand trial

A control group of people with no history of mental illness.

Six schizophrenic murderers were matched with 6 controls with schizophrenia

PPs Instructed to be medication free for 2 weeks prior

Question 15

Raine: Background

Answer 15

Previous research has shown that violent offenders have poorer brain functioning than normal controls (Raine 1993) and the improvement of brain scanning techniques such as PET scans (Positron Emission Tomography) has enabled researchers to localise this brain dysfunction

Question 16

Raine: Aim

Answer 16

To investigate whether offenders who commit murder and plead NGRI have localised brain dysfunction

Question 17

Raine: Hypotheses

Answer 17

Seriously violent individuals have localised brain dysfunction in the following areas of the brain: Prefrontal cortex, angular gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus and corpus callosum

Question 18

Raine: Procedure

Answer 18

Consent forms approved by the Human Subjects Committee of the Uni of California

PPs were required to work for 32 mins on a CPT that was based on recognition.

PPs were able to practice the CPT 10 mins before the tracer injection

PPs started the CPT 30 seconds before the glucose tracer (FDG) was injected so that the novelty would be removed

32 mins after the FDG injection a PET scan was carried out on each PP.

Question 19

Raine: Materials

Answer 19

Thermoplastic head holder (control - each PP had their own specifically molded to their head)

CPT task - pushing a button when a target was detected

PET scanner

Glucose tracer (FDG)

Question 20

Raine: Results (Brain differences)

Answer 20

Murderers have:
- less activity (reduced glucose metabolism) in the prefrontal cortex
- less activity in the left angular gyrus
- less activity in the corpus callosum
- less activity in the; amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus (LEFT HEMISPHERE)
- more activity in the; amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus (RIGHT HEMISPHERE)

Question 21

Raine: Results (Quantitative data)

What was mean relative glucose metabolism in NGRIs and the Controls in the prefrontal cortex?

Answer 21

NGRIs: 1.14
Controls: 1.18

Question 22

Raine: Results (Quantitative data)

What was the mean relative glucose metabolism in the NGRIs and the controls in the left & right side of the amygdala?

Answer 22

Left
NGRIs: 0.94
Controls: 0.97

Right
NGRIs: 0.88
Controls: 0.83

Question 23

Raine: Conclusions

Answer 23

Provides preliminary evidence that murderers pleasing NGRI have localised brain dysfunction.

Violent behaviour is best explained by the disruption of a network of brain mechanisms rather than a single region

Question 24

Raine: Results do not demonstrate….

Answer 24

Do not show that violent behaviour is determined by biology alone.

Do not show that murderers pleasing NGRI are not responsible for their actions

Do not show that brain dysfunction causes violence

Question 25

Raine: Data (evaluation)

Answer 25

+ Easy to compare conditions (murderer v non murderer) (glucose metabolism in prefrontal cortex was 1.18 v 1.14)

• doesn’t provide reasoning for findings, interviews would be more useful. May be other reasons someone felt the need to murder.
• Correlational data does not show a cause and effect relationship so usefulness is reduced.

Question 26

Raine: Method/ sampling bias (evaluation)

Answer 26

+ matched pairs (murdered v non murderers, and schizophrenics matched)

• Gender bias (39m, 2f) so findings cannot be generalised to females.. however, males are more likely to me criminals anyway
• Quasi experiments mean there is a lack of control over extraneous variables - such as childhood experiences

Question 27

Raine: reliability (evaluation)

Answer 27

+ Matched schizophrenics to reduce the affects of organic damage

+ medication was stopped 2 weeks prior

+ PPs able to practice the CPT to remove novelty

Question 28

Raine: validity (evaluation)

Answer 28

• PET scans are hard to analyse effectively
• Areas may look normal on a PET scan but not on a CT scan and vice versa.
• CPT is artificial and unconnected to violence (low ecological validity)
• Quasi exp does not show cause and effect; brain differences could have occured after the murders

+ Construct validity: Bufkin & Luttrell (2005) did a meta anaylsis and found the same results

Question 29

Raine: Psych as a science (evaluation)

Answer 29

Empirical evidence:
PET scans

Manipulation of IV:
Murderer v Non-Murderer

Controls:
- Stopped medication
- Matched pairs

Question 30

Raine: Determinism (evaluation)

Answer 30

Using Raine’s findings during criminal sentencing may be unethical:

Could be used against individuals through the idea that criminality is purely biological and therefore criminals will just reoffed

Or the belief that criminals cannot control it may lead to reduced sentencing

Question 31

Raine: Reductionism (evaluation)

Answer 31

+ Objective = valid results = treatments can be devised = reduced crime

+ Criminality not just determined by 1 brain region

• Other factors were not considered = treatments may not be entirely effective

Question 32

Raine: Ethics/socially sensitive research (evaluation)

Answer 32

Prejudice and stigmatisation of those with localised brain dysfunction

Could lead to self fulfilling prophercies

Stopping medication is unethical as it is likely to have negative side effects such as withdrawal symptoms and the return of symptoms

Question 33

What may an omega-3 deficiency lead to?

Answer 33

Limited regulation of the limbic system by the frontal lobes.

This leads to self control problems and aggressive behaviour

Question 34

What is essential for normal brain functioning (found in omega 3) and what foods is it in?

Answer 34

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

Salmon, olive oil, avocado, walnuts etc

Question 35

Nutritional Supplement regime for Prisoners summary (Gesch 2002)

Answer 35

1. Supplements packed into blister packs containing one vitamin/mineral capsule and 4 essential fatty acid capsules
2. Everyday, a pack is labelled with the prisoner’s name, cell and prison number and is given to the prisoner at lunch time.
3. Omega 3 capsule is taken 4 times a day and the vitamin capsule is taken at dinner time
4. Supplements should be at a dosage that is equivalent to the recommended daily amount
5. Do this for a month
6. Supplements consumed under the watch of prison guards to ensure compliance

Question 36

Usefulness of using nutritional supplements as a biological strategy to prevent criminal behaviour

Answer 36

Nutritional intake in prisons is poor so it is likely that omega 3 intake is also poor.

Supplements would improve the diet of prisoners and reduce violent behaviour

Reduce disruption in prisons or prevent recidivism if combined with a nutrition education programme that prisoners follow after release

Question 37

Effectiveness of using nutritional supplements as a biological strategy to prevent criminal behaviour

Answer 37

Gesch et al 2002:
26% improvement in the disciplinary record of young male offenders who took supplements

Supported by Zaalberg 2010:
Fewer incidents of aggression, disruption and rule breaking among young adult prisoners

Effectiveness may depend on the concentration of omega 3 given

Question 38

Practicalities of using nutritional supplements as a biological strategy to prevent criminal behaviour

Answer 38

Prisoners may have a better diet inside prison compared to outside - supplements easier to to enforce inside prison.

Expensive

Question 39

Nature-Nurture debate

Answer 39

Nature: would suggest that innate characteristics of the murdered explains their criminality.
Example: reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex (Raine) & MAOA gene deficit (Brunner)

However.. does criminality cause abnormalities or do abnormalities cause criminality?

Nurture: Not all those with brain injury become criminals

Question 40

Freewill-Determinism

Answer 40

Raine suggests that brain dysfunction alone is not enough to produce criminality. Low activity in the amygdala in the LH is linked to fearlessness and aggression so it is related to violent behaviour but it does not cause violent behaviour

Question 41

Reductionism-Holism

Answer 41

Reductionism: Brunner’s study into MAOA genes

Holism: Brain dysfunction as it focuses on neural processes between brain regions rather than 1 singular brain region.

Question 42

Ethics

Answer 42

Protection from harm- Individuals may feel distressed after PET scans revealing they have a brain abnormality.

Informed consent- All PPs consented to the scans in Raine’s study, all boys consented to have their criminal records checked in Farrington’s study