0 - Arguments Flashcards
(24 cards)
What is NOT considered an argument?
Stating an opinion without reasoning, expressing emotions (e.g., complaining), telling stories or anecdotes, verbal fights or disputes, insults, contradictions without reasons.
What is the definition of an argument?
A connected series of statements (premises) intended to give reasons for believing another statement (the conclusion).
What are the three main uses of arguments?
- Justification 2. Explanation 3. Persuasion (note: persuasion ≠ justification)
What are Vaughn’s steps for reading and analyzing arguments?
- Read with an open mind 2. Read actively and critically 3. Identify conclusion first, then premises 4. Clarify/paraphrase/outline 5. Evaluate the argument 6. Know deductive vs inductive 7. Determine if conclusion follows 8. Check if premises are true.
What is a statement in an argument?
An assertion that something is or isn’t the case; can be true or false.
What are premise markers?
Words that indicate reasons: since, because, for, given that, assuming that…
What are conclusion markers?
Words that indicate conclusions: therefore, thus, hence, so, as a result…
What is an unstated (suppressed) premise?
A hidden or implied premise needed to make the argument logically complete.
What is evaluative language and why is it important?
Language that expresses standards or judgments (e.g., good/bad, should/shouldn’t). It may signal persuasion or bias.
What is the standard form of an argument?
- Premise 2. Premise ∴ Conclusion (The symbol ∴ means “therefore”).
What is skeptical regress?
A problem where every premise requires further justification, potentially infinitely.
How can we avoid skeptical regress?
- Assuring – Claiming good reasons exist (e.g., citing authority) 2. Guarding – Weakening the claim (e.g., “most,” “likely”) 3. Discounting – Anticipating and dismissing objections.
What are the standards for evaluating arguments?
Deductive: Validity; Inductive: Strength.
What is a valid deductive argument?
One where it is impossible for all premises to be true and the conclusion false.
What is a sound argument?
A deductive argument that is both valid and has true premises.
What is Modus Ponens?
If P, then Q; P; ∴ Q (A valid form of argument).
What is Modus Tollens?
If P, then Q; Not Q; ∴ Not P (A valid form of argument).
What is Denying the Antecedent (invalid)?
If P, then Q; Not P; ∴ Not Q ❌.
What is Affirming the Consequent (invalid)?
If P, then Q; Q; ∴ P ❌.
What is enumerative induction?
Making a generalization based on a sample (e.g., “Most observed As are B → Most As are B”).
What questions help evaluate enumerative induction?
- Is the sample large enough? 2. Is the sample representative?
What is inference to the best explanation?
Choosing the best explanation (E) for an observation (O) when no better explanation exists.
What are the criteria for a good explanation (E)?
- Conservatism 2. Simplicity 3. Power 4. Modesty 5. Falsifiability.
What are the three steps to analyzing an argument?
- Identify: Mark indicators, strip fluff, use standard form 2. Clarify: Define terms, break into sub-arguments 3. Evaluate: Apply validity/strength, truth of premises, make judgment.
