07b_Memory and Forgetting

Question 1

Memory:

Three Processes

Answer 1

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Question 2

Information processing model (Multi-Store):

Three components

Answer 2

Sensory memory

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Question 3

Sensory memory
(aka Sensory register)

Answer 3

Brief storage of sensory stimuli (a few seconds)

Echoic Store

Iconic Store

Question 4

Echoic Store

Answer 4

Sensory memory of auditory information

Question 5

Iconic Store

Answer 5

Sensory memory of visual information

Question 6

Short-term memory:

Overview

Answer 6

Limited amount of information

Without rehearsal, info begins to fade within 30sec

Question 7

Short-term memory:

Encoding

Answer 7

Primarily acoustic

May also be semantic, visual, kinesthetic

Question 8

Short-term memory:

Primary Memory

Answer 8

Passive memory storage

5-9 distinct units

Larger amounts held by chunking information

Question 9

Short-term memory:

Working memory

Answer 9

Manipulation and processing of information

Question 10

Long-term memory:

Converting information from STM

Answer 10

Elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal

Question 11

Elaborative rehearsal

Answer 11

Relating new information to existing information

Question 12

Maintenance rehearsal

Answer 12

Simply repeating information with little or no processing

Question 13

Long-term memory:

Encoding

Answer 13

Mostly semantic

May be encoded visually or acoustically

Question 14

Long-term memory:

Capacity

Answer 14

Unlimited

Permanent

Question 15

Long-term memory:

Two timeframes

Answer 15

Recent (secondary) memory

Remote memory

Question 16

Serial Position Effect

Answer 16

Supports existence of separate short-and long-term stores

Primacy effect

Recency effect

Question 17

Levels-of-Processing Model:

Overview

Answer 17

Alternative to information processing model

Differences due to depth of processing rather than separate memory stores

Question 18

Levels-of-Processing Model:

Three Levels of Processing

Answer 18

Structural

Phonemic

Semantic

Question 19

Which processing level is deepest and produces greatest amount of recall?

Answer 19

Semantic Processing

Question 20

Long-Term Memory:

Procedural memory

Answer 20

Learning “How”

Cognitive skills

Motor skills and habits

Question 21

Long-Term Memory:

Declarative memory

Answer 21

Learning “What”

Acquisition of facts and other information

Semantic and Episodic memory

Question 22

Declarative Memory:

Semantic Memory

Answer 22

General knowledge

Independent of any context

e.g, facts, rules, and concepts

Question 23

Declarative Memory:

Episodic Memory

Answer 23

Autobiographical memory / personal experience

Flashbulb memories

Question 24

Type of memory most affected by normal aging

Answer 24

Episodic Memory

Question 25

Prospective memory

Answer 25

Capacity to remember to do things in the future

Question 26

Prospective memory: Older vs Younger Adults

Answer 26

Controlled conditions: Older Adults underperform Naturalistic settings: Older Adults outperform due to increased likelihood of using external aids (e.g. lists, calendars, reminders)

Question 27

Multi-Component Model of Working Memory: One system and three subsystems

Answer 27

Central executive: attentional control system Phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad Episodic buffer

Question 28

Multi-Component Model of Working Memory: Central executive

Answer 28

"Attentional Control System" Primary Component of Working Memory

Question 29

Central executive: Three functions

Answer 29

Direct attention to relevant information Suppress irrelevant information Coordinate three subsystems

Question 30

Multi-Component Model of Working Memory: Phonological loop

Answer 30

Temporarily storing auditory verbal information

Question 31

Multi-Component Model of Working Memory: Visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 31

Temporarily storing visual-spatial information

Question 32

Multi-Component Model of Working Memory: Episodic buffer

Answer 32

Temporarily integrates auditory, visual, and spatial information

Question 33

Tasks that are most affected by aging

Answer 33

Tasks that depend on the central executive working memory

Question 34

Forward Digit Span Task

Answer 34

Phonological loop only Not affected by aging

Question 35

Backward Digit Span Task

Answer 35

Relies on phonological loop and central executive *Due to reliance on central executive, it shows greater age-related decline

Question 36

Filter Theory of Selective Attention (Broadbent): Overview

Answer 36

Explains how information is transferred from sensory memory to short-term memory "Bottleneck" theory of attention

Question 37

Filter Theory of Selective Attention (Broadbent): Three Step Process

Answer 37

Two sensory stimuli maintained in sensory register Filter selects one stimulus to pass through based on physical characteristics, other is held in temporary buffer Stimulus that passes through is processed for meaning, and comes into conscious awareness

Question 38

Filter Theory of Selective Attention (Broadbent): Purpose of Filter

Answer 38

Prevent overloading of short-term memory capacity

Question 39

Dichotic Listening Task (Split Span)

Answer 39

Lends support to Broadbent's Filter Theory Participants listen to speech sounds presented to each ear simultaneously Pattern of recall indicates info processing is based on physical characteristics **on practice exam, task was associated with "selective attention"

Question 40

Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade): Two Stages of Visual Information Processing

Answer 40

Pre-attentive Attentive

Question 41

Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade): Pre-attentive stage

Answer 41

Basic features of object are perceived in parallel at automatic or subconscious level E.g. size, color, orientation

Question 42

Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade): Attentive stage

Answer 42

Features are processed serially to form a coherent whole

Question 43

Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade): Illusory Conjunctions

Answer 43

Over time, features may disintegrate and flow freely to recombine illusory ways Result of memory decay or interference

Question 44

Factors that affect the Accuracy of Memories

Answer 44

Schemas Memory Construction

Question 45

Memory construction

Answer 45

People tend to construct memory by combining elements of new information with existing knowledge Leads to inaccuracies and distortions [e.g. faulty eyewitness testimony]

Question 46

Ebbinghaus' "forgetting curve"

Answer 46

Most forgetting occurs during the first 4-5 days and then gradually tapers off

Question 47

Trace Decay Theory

Answer 47

Hypothesized "Engram" = physiological change in brain produced by learning Decays over time as a result of disuse

Question 48

Interference theory: Overview

Answer 48

Recall of certain information is affected by previous or subsequently acquired information Retroactive interference Proactive interference

Question 49

Interference theory: Factors that increase likelihood of interference

Answer 49

When old and new information are similar When task involves recall When information is unimportant or meaningless

Question 50

Retroactive interference

Answer 50

New material interferes with the recall of previously learned material [new material interferes retroactively]

Question 51

Proactive Interference

Answer 51

When prior learning interferes the learning or recall of subsequent (new) material [old material interferes proactively]

Question 52

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

Answer 52

When retrieval cues for information from long-term memory are insufficient or incomplete

Question 53

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Answer 53

Associated with cue-dependent forgetting Due to inadequate retrieval cues

Question 54

Improving Memory: Encoding specificity

Answer 54

Improved recall improves with increased similarity between encoding method and cues at recall

Question 55

Improving Memory: State-dependent learning

Answer 55

Recall improves when learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall

Question 56

Memory: Recall v Recognition Performance

Answer 56

Performance is usually better on measures of recognition | Recognition items provide more retrieval cues

Question 57

Mnemonics: Four Techniques

Answer 57

Method of Loci Keyword method Acronym Acrostic

Question 58

Improving Memory: Keyword Method

Answer 58

Imagery technique useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked

Question 59

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Answer 59

Moderate levels of arousal maximize efficiency of learning and performance Extreme low and high levels of arousal decrease efficiency

Question 60

Yerkes-Dodson Law: Influence of Task Difficulty

Answer 60

The more difficult the task, the lower the optimal level of arousal