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08_Digestive System 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is oral thrush?

A

A fungal infection of the mouth which is a sign of low immunity and not contagious.

Caused by Candida albicans, often seen in immunocompromised individuals.

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2
Q

What are the causes of oral thrush?

A
  • Candida albicans
  • Broad-spectrum antibiotics
  • Immune suppressant drugs
  • Nutritional deficiencies (iron, zinc, vit. B12)

These factors compromise the immune system, allowing fungal growth.

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3
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of oral thrush?

A
  • White patches on oral mucosa
  • Red/raw appearance to underlying tissue
  • Loss of taste or unpleasant taste

The patches can be wiped or brushed off.

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4
Q

What is the allopathic treatment for oral thrush?

A

Antifungals (often harmful and toxic).

Allopathic treatments may have side effects.

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5
Q

What are natural treatments for oral thrush?

A
  • Address cause
  • Anti-fungals (caprylic acid, oregano oil, garlic, apple cider vinegar, grapefruit seed extract)
  • Probiotics
  • Eliminate refined and simple sugars

Natural remedies focus on restoring balance and supporting the immune system.

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6
Q

What are mouth ulcers?

A

Areas of ulceration within the oral cavity that are generally painful.

These ulcers result from loss of the mucosal layer.

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7
Q

What are the causes of mouth ulcers?

A
  • Physical trauma
  • Hot food/liquids
  • Nutritional deficiencies (iron, zinc, folate, vitamin B12)
  • Stress
  • GIT pathologies (e.g., Crohn’s disease)

Stress can lead to poor mucosal blood flow.

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8
Q

What is the treatment for mouth ulcers?

A

Treat the cause, correct nutritional status, improve immunity, probiotics, homeopathy.

Addressing underlying issues is crucial for healing.

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9
Q

What are cold sores?

A

A viral infection that lies dormant and activates when immunity is low.

The herpes simplex virus (normally Type I) causes cold sores.

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10
Q

What triggers cold sores?

A
  • Stress
  • Steroid use
  • Trauma
  • Local infections
  • Sunlight exposure

These triggers can lead to reactivation of the virus.

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11
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of cold sores?

A
  • Tingling, itching, burning sensation around the mouth
  • Small fluid-filled sores on the lower lip

These symptoms indicate an impending outbreak.

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12
Q

What is the allopathic treatment for cold sores?

A

Antiviral creams (acyclovir).

These creams help to reduce the severity of symptoms.

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13
Q

What are natural treatments for cold sores?

A
  • Antivirals (lemon balm, elderberry, colloidal silver, propolis, L-lysine)
  • Immune support (vitamin C, zinc, echinacea)
  • Homeopathy (e.g., Nat mur)
  • Acupuncture

Natural treatments focus on boosting the immune system and alleviating symptoms.

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14
Q

What is an abscess?

A

A localized pocket of pus surrounded by inflammation.

It occurs as a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infection.

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15
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of an abscess?

A
  • Pain
  • Redness
  • Local swelling
  • Fever
  • Malaise

These symptoms indicate a bacterial infection, commonly affecting the oral cavity and intestines.

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16
Q

What is the treatment for an abscess?

A
  • Antibiotics
  • Drainage
  • Gargles in the mouth
  • Herbs (liquorice, golden seal)
  • Nutrients (zinc, vitamin C)
  • Immune support with herbs
  • Homeopathy
  • Colloidal silver

Treatment varies based on the location of the abscess.

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17
Q

What is gingivitis?

A

A bacterial infection of the gums.

If untreated, it may progress to periodontal disease.

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18
Q

What are the symptoms of gingivitis?

A
  • Bleeding gums
  • Receding gums

These symptoms are indicative of inflammation in the gums.

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19
Q

What causes gingivitis?

A
  • Plaque build-up
  • Poor dental hygiene
  • Dental amalgams
  • Long-term steroid medication use
  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Smoking
  • Poor nutrition

These factors contribute to the development of gum disease.

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20
Q

What is angular stomatitis?

A

Fissuring and dry scaling of the surface of the lips and angles of the mouth.

It is commonly seen in the elderly and those immunocompromised.

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21
Q

What are the causes of angular stomatitis?

A
  • Vitamin B deficiencies (Riboflavin, folic acid)
  • Iron deficiency
  • Candida albicans
  • Staphylococcus

Nutritional deficiencies and infections can lead to this condition.

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22
Q

What is xerostomia?

A

Dry mouth due to reduced/absent flow of saliva.

A common complaint in the elderly.

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23
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of xerostomia?

A
  • Dry mouth
  • Burning sensation
  • Halitosis
  • Speech and swallowing interference

These symptoms significantly affect quality of life.

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24
Q

What are the complications of xerostomia?

A
  • Candidiasis
  • Gingivitis
  • Tonsillitis
  • Pharyngitis

A lack of saliva can lead to various oral infections.

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25
What causes xerostomia?
* Drugs (e.g., antidepressants) * Sjögren’s syndrome * Stress * Anxiety * Dehydration * Renal failure * Menopause * Alcohol * Smoking * Radiotherapy ## Footnote Various factors can lead to reduced saliva production.
26
What is a cleft lip?
Malformation of the lip in embryonic development. ## Footnote It can be unilateral or bilateral, complete or incomplete.
27
What are the causes of cleft lip and palate?
* Genetic defects * Environmental factors (maternal disease, dietary factors) * Teratogens (chemotherapy, radiation, alcohol, excess vitamin A, anticonvulsant medications, smoking, substance abuse) ## Footnote These factors can lead to malformations during embryonic development.
28
What is oral cancer?
Carcinoma of the oral mucosa, lip or tongue. ## Footnote Accounts for one in 50 of all cancer cases.
29
What are the causes of oral cancer?
* Smoking * Alcohol * HPV infection ## Footnote These are significant risk factors for developing oral cancer.
30
What are the signs and symptoms of oral cancer?
* Red or white patches on oral mucosa or tongue * Difficulty eating and breathing ## Footnote Early detection is crucial for better outcomes.
31
What is the treatment for oral cancer?
* Allopathic: Surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy * Natural: Herbs, nutritional supplements, diet (plant-based and antioxidants) ## Footnote A combined approach may improve patient outcomes.
32
What are salivary calculi?
Metabolic imbalance affecting mineral concentration resulting in stone formation in salivary glands. ## Footnote These stones can cause inflammation and blockage.
33
What are the signs and symptoms of salivary calculi?
* Intermittent pain and swelling of affected gland, particularly when eating * May be a palpable mass ## Footnote Symptoms often worsen during mealtime.
34
What is gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD)?
The lower oesophageal sphincter relaxes and acid regurgitates from the stomach into the oesophagus. ## Footnote This condition can lead to significant discomfort.
35
What are the signs and symptoms of GORD?
* Retrosternal pain (heartburn) * Belching ## Footnote Symptoms can mimic cardiac pathology.
36
What are the causes of GORD?
* Obesity * Hiatus hernia * Pregnancy * Trigger foods (spicy, fatty foods, alcohol, caffeine) * Stress ## Footnote Lifestyle factors significantly influence the severity of GORD.
37
What are the complications of GORD?
* Damage to oesophageal mucosa * Increased risk of ulcers * Barrett’s oesophagus * Cancer ## Footnote Chronic GORD can lead to severe outcomes if untreated.
38
What is the allopathic treatment for GORD?
Antacids (some contain aluminium). ## Footnote These medications can provide symptomatic relief.
39
What are the natural treatments for GORD?
* Treat the cause * Baking soda (no aluminium) * Eating smaller, more frequent meals * Weight loss * Diet modifications * Aloe vera, slippery elm after meals ## Footnote Natural approaches aim to alleviate symptoms and promote healing.
40
What is a hiatus hernia?
Part of the stomach protrudes into the thoracic cavity through an opening in the diaphragm. ## Footnote It is common in people over 50.
41
What are the signs and symptoms of hiatus hernia?
Often asymptomatic or presents as GORD. ## Footnote Many individuals are unaware they have a hiatus hernia.
42
What are the causes of hiatus hernia?
* Increased abdominal pressure (heavy lifting, coughing, pregnancy, childbirth) * Heredity * Smoking * Drug abuse * Stress ## Footnote Various factors contribute to the development of a hiatus hernia.
43
What are the complications of hiatus hernia?
Can cause gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD). ## Footnote Management is crucial to prevent further complications.
44
What is oesophageal cancer?
A common aggressive tumour with a poor prognosis. ## Footnote Early detection is critical for treatment success.
45
What are the signs and symptoms of oesophageal cancer?
* Few early symptoms * Later obstruction may occur * Dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) * Anorexia and melaena (black tarry stools) ## Footnote Dysphagia is a red flag symptom.
46
What are the causes and risk factors of oesophageal cancer?
* Chronic irritation * Alcohol * Smoking * GORD * Barrett’s oesophagus * Obesity * Low fruit and vegetable diet * Age ## Footnote Multiple lifestyle factors can increase risk.
47
What is acute gastritis?
Acute inflammation of the stomach mucosa causing breakdown of the stomach lining. ## Footnote Insufficient mucus production leads to erosion.
48
What are the causes of acute gastritis?
* Helicobacter pylori * NSAIDs * Alcohol * Food poisoning * Stress ## Footnote These factors can lead to acute inflammation.
49
What are the signs and symptoms of acute gastritis?
* Epigastric pain (worse with food) * Nausea/vomiting * Loss of appetite ## Footnote Symptoms can be severe and require prompt treatment.
50
What is chronic gastritis?
Chronic stomach mucosal inflammation lasting more than four–six weeks. ## Footnote Characterized by prolonged low-grade inflammation.
51
What are the causes of chronic gastritis?
* Autoimmune * Bacterial (H. pylori) * Chronic irritation (e.g., long-term NSAIDs) ## Footnote Different underlying issues can lead to chronic inflammation.
52
What are the signs and symptoms of chronic gastritis?
* Few symptoms * Epigastric discomfort * Nausea * Poor appetite ## Footnote Symptoms may be subtle but can lead to serious complications.
53
What are the complications of chronic gastritis?
* Anaemia (megaloblastic, iron, pernicious) * Gastric carcinoma ## Footnote Chronic inflammation can lead to significant health issues.
54
What is a peptic ulcer?
Ulcer of the GI mucosa (stomach, duodenum). ## Footnote Tissue erosion can vary in depth.
55
What are the signs and symptoms of a peptic ulcer?
* Gastric pain (30–60 mins after eating) * Duodenal pain (2-3 hours after eating and at night) * Pain when stomach is empty * Burping, nausea ## Footnote Symptoms can vary based on the location of the ulcer.
56
What are the causes of peptic ulcers?
* Helicobacter pylori (80%) * NSAIDs (10%) * Stress * Chronic gastritis ## Footnote Addressing these causes is essential for treatment.
57
What is dumping syndrome?
Loss of control of gastric emptying, leading to the duodenum being filled with undigested food. ## Footnote This condition causes sudden and urgent diarrhea.
58
What are the signs and symptoms of dumping syndrome?
* Early dumping (nausea, vomiting, bloating, cramping) ## Footnote Symptoms occur shortly after meals.
59
What causes reactive hypoglycaemia?
Presence of carbohydrates leading to elevated serum glucose and excessive insulin release from the pancreas.
60
What are the signs and symptoms of early dumping syndrome?
* Nausea * Vomiting * Bloating * Cramping * Diarrhoea * Dizziness * Fatigue
61
What is the second highest cause of cancer-related death in the world?
Gastric cancer
62
What are common causes and risk factors for gastric cancer?
* Male * Smoking * Age (55 yrs+) * H. pylori infection * Diet rich in salted, pickled, and smoked foods * Low fruit and vegetable diet
63
What are the early stage symptoms of gastric cancer?
* Persistent indigestion * Frequent burping * Heartburn * Feeling full quickly * Bloating * Abdominal discomfort
64
What is appendicitis?
Inflammation of the appendix.
65
What are the signs and symptoms of appendicitis?
* Umbilical pain that may come and go * Pain in the right iliac fossa * Rebound tenderness at McBurney’s Point * Pallor * Sweating * Fever * Nausea * Vomiting * Diarrhoea
66
What is dysentery?
An infection of the intestines that causes diarrhoea containing blood or mucus.
67
What are the common causes of dysentery?
* Bacterial (shigella) * Amoebic via faeco-oral contamination
68
What are the symptoms of Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO)?
* Bloating * Flatulence * Belching * Loss of appetite * Diarrhoea or constipation
69
What two diseases are classified under Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)?
* Ulcerative colitis * Crohn's disease
70
What are the complications associated with Inflammatory Bowel Disease?
* Malnutrition * Strictures * Fistulas * Fissures * Abscesses * Toxic megacolon * Increased risk of colorectal cancer
71
What is coeliac disease?
An autoimmune condition where the immune system attacks the mucosa tissue in the small intestine in response to gluten ingestion.
72
What are classic gastrointestinal signs of coeliac disease?
* Chronic diarrhoea/constipation * Pale, foul-smelling stools * Steatorrhoea * Bloating * Flatulence * Abdominal pain * Weight loss
73
What is diverticulosis?
The presence of pea-sized pouches (diverticula) in the colon, usually asymptomatic.
74
What are the symptoms of diverticulitis?
* Bloating * Abdominal pain * Diarrhoea * Fever * Chills
75
What is a hernia?
An internal part of the body pushes through a weakness in the muscle or surrounding tissue wall.
76
What are the common types of hernias?
* Inguinal hernia * Hiatus hernia * Incisional hernia
77
What are colonic polyps?
Benign epithelial growths of colonic mucosa.
78
What is the treatment for appendicitis?
* Surgery (appendectomy) * Antibiotics
79
What is the major complication of untreated diverticulitis?
Rupture leading to peritonitis.
80
What is the primary dietary treatment for coeliac disease?
Gluten-free diet.
81
True or False: Inflammatory Bowel Disease can lead to increased risk of colorectal cancer.
True
82
Fill in the blank: The immune system mistakenly identifies parts of _______ as foreign in coeliac disease.
[gliadin]
83
What are the symptoms of a hernia?
• Swelling or lump in the groin. • Pain may be noticeable with strain and disappears when lying down. • Strangulation may lead to necrosis. ## Footnote Necrosis refers to the death of tissue due to loss of blood supply or bowel obstruction.
84
What is the treatment for a hernia if no strangulation occurs?
It often resolves within a few years or may require surgery.
85
What is the primary diagnostic tool for colonic polyps?
Colonoscopy.
86
What is the risk of colonic polyps becoming malignant?
Less than 1% become malignant.
87
What is colorectal cancer?
A malignant tumour that is locally invasive.
88
What are common signs and symptoms of colorectal cancer?
• Fluctuating bowel habits (constipation/diarrhoea) • Blood (and mucus) in stools • Abdominal pain.
89
What are the major causes of colorectal cancer?
• Diet high in meat • Low fibre • Lack of vitamin D • Polyps • Family history.
90
What investigations are used for colorectal cancer?
• Colonoscopy and biopsy • Stool analysis (occult blood and M2PK) • Blood test (CEA, inflammatory markers, low Hb).
91
What is acute pancreatitis?
Acute inflammation of the pancreas, considered a medical emergency.
92
What are the signs and symptoms of acute pancreatitis?
• Sudden extreme epigastric/periumbilical pain • Nausea • Vomiting • Diarrhoea • Fever.
93
What causes acute pancreatitis?
• Alcohol abuse • Gallstones • Cancer.
94
How is acute pancreatitis diagnosed?
Serum amylase (3x normal level) and lipase; increased blood glucose.
95
What is chronic pancreatitis?
Chronic inflammation of the pancreas leading to permanent tissue changes.
96
What are the symptoms of chronic pancreatitis?
• Repeated abdominal pain • Fatty, foul-smelling stools.
97
What are the major causes of chronic pancreatitis?
• Long-term alcohol abuse (60%) • Autoimmune pancreatitis • Pancreatic duct obstruction • Cystic fibrosis complications.
98
What complications can arise from chronic pancreatitis?
• Diabetes mellitus • Pancreatic cancer • Weight loss • Malnutrition.
99
What is pancreatic cancer?
A common cancer in older people, usually arising from exocrine cells.
100
What are the symptoms of pancreatic cancer?
• Asymptomatic early • Epigastric pain radiating to the back • Unexplained weight loss • Jaundice • Post-prandial nausea.
101
What is the prognosis of pancreatic cancer?
It has a poor prognosis, with approximately 60% metastatic at diagnosis.
102
What are the treatment options for pancreatic cancer?
• Surgery • Chemotherapy • Radiotherapy.
103
What are gallstones?
One or more stones in the gallbladder, usually made of cholesterol.
104
What are the symptoms of gallstones?
• 70% asymptomatic at diagnosis • Biliary colic • Abdominal pain • Jaundice.
105
What are the risk factors for developing gallstones?
• 5Fs (fat, female, forty, fair, fertile) • Pregnancy • Obesity • Rapid weight loss.
106
What is enterobiasis (pinworm)?
A parasitic helminth infection with a lifespan of approximately two months.
107
What are common symptoms of enterobiasis?
• Intense itching around the anus • Insomnia • Loss of appetite.
108
What is the main host for Toxoplasmosis?
Cats are the main host for the parasite.
109
What are the health risks associated with Toxoplasmosis during pregnancy?
Miscarriage, stillbirth, and rarely birth defects.
110
What is the treatment for Toxoplasmosis?
Only requires treatment if pregnant or immunocompromised.
111
What dietary changes are suggested for managing Crohn’s Disease?
• Low FODMAP diet • Eliminate gluten and dairy • Include skinless oily fish.
112
What supplements are recommended for Crohn’s Disease management?
• High EPA Fish oil • Quercetin • Curcumin • Vitamin D.
113
What is the outcome measure in the case study for Crohn's Disease?
No anaemia, stable vitamin D levels, normal calprotectin.
114
What is liver cirrhosis?
Irreversible scarring of liver tissue due to long-term damage.
115
What are the main causes of liver cirrhosis?
• Alcoholic liver disease • Hepatitis B/C • Bile obstruction.
116
What are common symptoms of liver cirrhosis?
• Jaundice • Fatigue • Itchy skin.
117
What are the complications of liver cancer?
• Jaundice • Ascites • Hepatomegaly.
118
What is the primary treatment for liver cancer?
Surgery or liver transplant.

Biomedicine (10 decks)

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