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1
Q

What are cognitions

A

Mental actions or processes of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experiences and senses

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2
Q

What is an engram

A

A memory trace that is stored within the brain and can be extracted when the memory is requested

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3
Q

What is coding

A

The way information is stored and processed into memory. Information is changed into a form which can be stored

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4
Q

What is capacity

A

A measure of how much can be held in memory

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5
Q

What is duration

A

A measure of how long a memory lasts in a store, before it is no longer available for recall

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6
Q

What are the three ways information can be coded

A

Acoustic, visual, semantic

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7
Q

Describe Baddley’s cat/mat

A

Four different groups - acoustically similar words, acoustically dissimilar words, semantically similar words, semantically dissimilar words
Independent groups design-participants see a set of 10 words and recall them. The number of words written correct and in the write order can be multiplied by four to find the percentage figure

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8
Q

What were Badley’s findings and what does this show

A

Acoustically similar= 10% and this showed that STM is coded acoustically
Acoustically dissimilar=80%
Semantically similar=65%
Semantically dissimilar=70%

Recall after 20 minutes was worse with semantically similar words so this shown LTM is coded semantically

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9
Q

Strengths and limitations of Badley’s study

A

-
Less meaningful study- doesn’t reflect how we use memory is every day life

+
Standardised procedures so it is easily replicable

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10
Q

Describe Jacob’s serial digit span study

A

-there is a list of digits that increase by one gradually
-the participant recalls the list directly after hearing it
-the digit span they reach before going wrong is a measure of their STM capacity

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11
Q

What is miller’s magic number

A

7+/-2 items- the capacity of the short term memory

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12
Q

What is chunking

A

We groups items into larger units or chunks to increase the number of items we can hold in the STM

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13
Q

Describe the Peterson and peterson’s experiment

A

24 psychology students were shown a random trigram and then asked to count down in threes from the number shown. Then they were asked to recall the trigram. The time between showing the trigram and then recalling it increases. AS the time increases, percentage of trigram correct decreases. This shows the duration of short term memory is 18-30 seconds

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14
Q

Discuss strengths and limitations of the Peterson and Petersons experiment

A

Controlled experiment- easily replicable

Unrealistic as normal people do not perform such tasks

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15
Q

Describe Bahrick’s high school year book experiment

A

He got participants that had graduated 15 years ago and participants that had graduated 48 years ago

Recognition test- he showed participants their yearbook and asked them to identify classmates from their photos
15=90%
48=70%

Free recall test-free recall of the names of their classmates with no image
15=60%
48=30%

Using cues may help LTM last a lifetime

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16
Q

Describe the multi store model of memory

A

-the sensory register is modality species and detects information from the environment via the 5 senses
-it is a filter and not a store so information only stays for 1/4 second
-if attention is payed to the information it will be transferred to the short term memory
-it is coded acoustically and we are consciously aware of the information
-only 5-9 pieces of information can be held at one time for 18-30 seconds
-the rehearsal loop allows information to be transferred into the long term memory and avoid decay and displacement
-long term memory is potentially unlimited and is coded semantically
-information must be retrieved back to the short term memory if it is to be used again

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17
Q

What is the case study of KF and how does it support/challenge the MSM

A

Memory was impaired as a result of a motorbike accident.is long term memory was unaffected but some of his short term memory was.

Supports- separate unitary stores in the MSM and different areas of the brain

Challenge- simplified nature of the MSM. Only verbal short term memory affected but not visual and acoustic

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18
Q

What is the case study of Clive wearing and how does it support/ challenge the MSM

A

Herpes virus destroyed parts of his brain so his long term memory was affected but not his short term memory
Supports- memories are formed by passing information from one store to the next in a linear fashion.separate stores for LTM and STM

Challenges- the simplified nature of the MSM- Clive’s semantic and procedural memories were fine

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19
Q

Issues or debates around the multi story model

A

Machine reductionism- attempts to explain a complex behaviour by comparing humans to computers. Affected by emotion and motivation unlike computers. Limits usefulness of the MSM in explaining human memory accuracy

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20
Q

What does the central executive do

A

It allocates resources dependant on the cognitive demands. It controls the other slave systems.

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21
Q

What is the phonological loop and what are the two subsystems

A

It is a temporary acoustic storage system for auditory and verbal information Phonological store and articulatory processes

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22
Q

What does the phonological store do

A

It represented auditory information in terms of pitch and loudness

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23
Q

What does the articulatory process do

A

It acts as maintenance rehearsal and holds words for subvocal repetition to prevent decay

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24
Q

What does the Visio spatial sketchpad do and what are the two subsystems

A

It rehearses visual and spatial information. Visual cache and inner scribe

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25
What does the visual cache do
It stores visual information like the form or colour of an item
26
What does the inner scribe do
It stores information about spatial relationships- the arrangement of objects
27
What is the capacity/ duration of the phonological loop
2 seconds/ the amount of time it takes to say seomthing
28
What is the capacity of the Visio spatial sketchpad
Around 3-4 objects at a time
29
What does the episodic buffer do
It holds and integrates diverse information from both slave systems. Binds the information into chunks
30
What is the best issue and debate for the working memory model as a limitation
Machine reductionism- reduces how complex human memory to like a computer. This ignored emotional and motivational factors which limits the model
31
What evidence is there to support the working memory model
Hitch and Baddley’s dual task experiment Case study of K.F PET brain scans
32
What are the limitations of the working memory model
Lack of knowledge of the central executive PET brain scans do not show central executive and episodic buffer Dual tasks were artificial tasks
33
How does the case study of K.F support the working memory model
K.F suffered a brain injury and his STM for visual and acoustic items was fine but he had difficulties with verbal items Supports the idea that visual and verbal information is stored in separate locations
34
What was Hitch and Baddleys dual task experiment
Partcipants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks than doing one visual and one verbal task at the same time. This means that there must be a separate slave system that process the visual input and can only focus on one item at any one time
35
What are the three types of long term memory
Episodic, semantic, procedural
36
What are episodic memories
Personal memories- time, people, objects, places and behaviours
37
What are semantic memories
Memories around facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts means
38
What are procedural memories
Our knowledge of how to do things. Undeclaritive so not retrieved consciously
39
Where are procedural memories stored in the brain
The cerebelum
40
Where are semantic memories store in the brain
The cerebrum and the prefrontal cortex
41
Where are episodic memories stored in the brain
The hippocampus
42
What are the two explanations of forgetting
Interference and retrieval failure
43
How does interference explain forgetting
Interference happens when one memory disrupts the ability to recall another memory. This only occurs when the two memories are similar
44
What is Retroactive interfence
Occurs when newly acquired information inhibits our ability to recall previously acquired information
45
What is proactive interference
The tendency for previously acquired informations to hinder recall of current information
46
Describe McGeach and McDonald’s study for similarity of items in interfence
Three conditions One condition- learns adjective list one and recalls after 10 minutes Two condition- learn adjective list one then learn number lost one for 10 minutes and then recall adjective list one Condition three- learn adjective list one then learn adjective lost two that has similar words to adjective list one for 10 minutes. Recall adjective list one
47
What were the results for McGeaoch and McDonalds study on similar items in interference
Condition one- 4.51 adjectives recalled Condition two-3.68 Condition three- 1.25 Retroactive interference- newly acquired adjective list two affects the ability to recall adjective list one because the lists were similar
48
What is retrieval failure
Occurs when we don’t have the news essay cues to access a memory
49
What is the encoding specificity principle
Cues may be indirectly linked by being coded at the time of learning. Cues can be external or internal or category
50
What is context dependent forgetting
Occurs due to a lack of the correct environmental (or external) cues.
51
What was Godden and Baddeley’s study
18 diving club participant did a repeated measures design. Four conditions. They had to learn 38 unrelated words that they heard twice Learning words on land and recalling on land Learning words on land and recalling underwater Learning under water and recalling underwater Learning under water and recalling on land 50% better recall when environment contexts for learning and recall are the same
52
What is state dependent forgetting
This occurs due to the lack of the correct personal (or internal) cues
53
Describe Carter and Cassady’s antihistamine experiment
Participants had to learn a lost of words and passage of prose and then recall information in one of these conditions Learn drowsy- recall drowsy Learn drowsy-recall alert Learn alert-recall alert Learn alert-recall drowsy
54
What are leading questions
Questions that make it likely that a participants schema will influence them to give a desired answer
55
What are misleading questions
Incorrect information given to the eye witness that may alter a memory after the event
56
What is post event discussion
A misleading conversation after an indecent has occurred that may alter a witnesses memory. Information added to a memory
57
Describe lotus and palmers leading questions experiment
45 student participants placed into groups and shown short films involving car accidents. Filled in a questionnaire with one question asking for an estimation of the speed the cars were travelling at. Each groups had a different phrasing of the critical question. Different verbs like smashed, collided, bumped. They found significant differences in the average estimations. 9mph difference between the words smashed and contacted
58
Describe lotus and palmers misleading information experiment
New participants watched a view of a car accident and were asked similar speed questions to experiment one. A week later participants were asked if they saw the broken glass even though there was no broken glass in the video. More participants in the smashed condition reported seeing some.
59
Limitations of the lotus and palmer experiment
Low ecological validity as the videos are not real and are not as anxiety provoking Lacks population validity as students are less experienced drivers and may be less accurate at estimating speeds Laboratory study so students are not trying as hard to recall. Not a real life situation
60
Describe the yuille and Cutshal study
Field experiment involving a real life shooting in Vancouver Canada. 13 witnesses agreed to do the research and were interviewed 4-5 months after the shooting. This meant the chance of post even discussion was high. Researches also asked leading questions and misleading questions. Most witnesses were highly accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy of recall over the 5 months intervening period. Suggests that lotus and palmer studies lack ecological validity.
61
describe the Johnson and Scott weapon effect experiment
Participants were waiting outside a laboratory overhearing an exchange between people in an adjacent room. Conditions one, a man with greasy hands storms out of the room holding a pen while in the other condition participants hear a heated exchange and the sound of breaking glass and then a man emerged holding a knife covered with blood. Participants were shown photos of men and were asked to identify him. Recognition was 12% worse in the knife condition
62
What are the four techniques used in the cognitive interview
Report everything, reinstatement of context, change order and change perspective

Psychology- Memory (1 decks)

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