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Question 1

Attributes of Science:

Answer 1

OBJECTIVE: an approach without bias, impersonal, seeks authority in fact not opinion
LOGICAL: uses rules of derivation and statistical analysis appropriate for the problem
ETHICAL: conforming to professional standards of conduct as determined by the moral values of society
SYSTEMATIC: carefully organized approach to analysis
RELIABLE KNOWLEDGE: one you can depend on; allows to predict outcomes

Question 2

Aspects of Science Through History

Answer 2

1. as an institution
2. as a method
3. as a growing collection of experiences
4. as a means of production
5. as a source of ideas

Question 3

1. As an institution

Answer 3

Historically, part time or spare time occupation
monopoly of upper or middle class
hobby
self funded
usually self indulgent
little monetary gain
advances slow

More recently, as a profession
allied to medicine and engineering
evolved specialized professions

no immediate economic value
funding difficult, how to live

Patron: individual, university corporation, government
scientist has to “sell” project to patron
project control?
influence what is done?
returns (tangible, advertising, benevolence)?
safeguards in place – peer review
to maintain intellectual status of science, aim to not influence fields studied, amount of work in them
science as intrinsically valuable (long-term projects) becoming less evident, less fundable

Role of “The People”
ultimate judges of meaning/value of science
eg. suspicion and hostility to science
historically, when in hands of selected few, linked to interests of ruling class
recently influencing what science is performed
eg. cancer – public opinion, support for research funds supplied

Question 4

2. As a method

Answer 4

Method of science is not fixed, is growing
scientific method, like science, defies definition
research (methods) is the doing of science
Historically, dates back to Greek times, or earlier
example: The Survey
Biblical references to counts of children of Israel
Napoleon did population surveys
Descriptive surveys of C. Booth (19th century) – count of poor in London and reported their characteristics, related variables
Today, major approach in behavior research for social scientists, market researchers and public opinion pollsters
mail questionnaires, personal interviews, phone interviews, opinion polls

Question 5

3. As a cumulative tradition of knowledge

Answer 5

Science is cumulative
ever-growing body of knowledge
built on ideas, experience, action

differs from other institutions
eg. Religion

Art

science:
striving to challenge accepted truth, discover new truths
loss of individual performance when work is assimilated, superseded
results subjected at any time to tests

Question 6

4. As a factor in production
   A major function of science in modern times
   Role of science when techniques developed
   materials available (eg. wood  spear)
   technique developed (throw spear, kill animal)
   science: way of understanding how to do it better (use lighter wood, throw spear further, kill more animals)

Answer 6

A major function of science in modern times
Role of science when techniques developed
 materials available (eg. wood  spear)
 technique developed (throw spear, kill animal)
 science: way of understanding how to do it better (use lighter wood, throw spear further, kill more animals)

Question 7

5. As an influence moulding beliefs and attitudes

Answer 7

Laws, hypotheses, theories of science have wide bearing
Scientific discovery often obstructed by established ideas that need to be overthrown
Historically: myths and magic
Copernicus: movement of the earth
Harvey: circulation of the blood

Depends on traditional picture, but should be continuously evaluated when new evidence available
Importance of science demands caution

Question 8

A. Nutrition in the prehistoric era

Answer 8

• Instinctive biological drive to acquire nourishment
• Success of species indicates ancestors met nutritional needs, if not always fully

-Composition of diets based on availability
no nutritional reason
~ ⅓ animal, ⅔ plants (↓fat, ↑fibre)

-Information (knowledge) acquired through trial and error and careful observation
primitive beginnings of toxicology, food safety, and dietetic medicine

-Practical/pragmatic thinking to meet needs for food coupled with magical practices
Courage: eat heart of enemy or fierce animal

Question 9

B. Dietetic medicine from Greek civilization to the Renaissance

Answer 9

Medicine develops as profession
major diseases attributed to supernatural
punishment sent by the gods

Direct observation and logical reasoning to explain natural world
Greek philosophers ~ 500 BC
each disease has its own nature and no one arises without a natural cause (Hippocrates)

Question 10

Hippocratic physicians emphasized

Answer 10

Hippocratic physicians emphasized lifestyle
diet and exercise – in diagnosis and treatment
often accepted unreliable conclusion based on subjective observations

Question 11

Crude concept of metabolism

Answer 11

anatomical/physiological observations of Galen (129 – 200 AD)
food -> absorbed -> transformed -> tissues & organs (liver produces vital fluids) -> surplus and wastes excreted

Question 12

Galen

Answer 12

anatomical/physiological observations of Galen (129 – 200 AD)
food  absorbed  transformed  tissues & organs (liver produces vital fluids)  surplus and wastes excreted

Question 13

Middle ages (5th – 14th centuries)

Answer 13

mythical Hippocratic doctrine obstacle to understanding physiological processes

• relationship between foods and body functions
  eg. health qualities – warm, cold, moist dry
• dogmatists predominate

-Europe – dark age of natural science
environment receptive to mystical beliefs and practices (religion and politics)
Arabic (Islamic) societies scholarship (libraries…) flourished (8th – 13th centuries)
scholarly works translated into Arabic
contributed to medicine and pharmacy

Question 14

Renaissance (15th - 16th centuries)

Answer 14

Renaissance (15th - 16th centuries) revived struggle for independent thought, beginning of scientific revolution
Leonardo da Vinci - likened metabolism to burning candle
Paracelsus – alchemist, physician, astrologer
used experimentation in learning about human body
experimented with dosage (“…no thing is without poison. The dosage makes it either a poison or a remedy”)
pioneered use of minerals and chemicals in medicine
concept of metabolism: body transformed food into fat, bone and other material, rejected what could not assimilate
but accepted “doctrine of signatures” – that plants bearing parts resembling human parts had relevancy to those parts (eg. liverwort)
(still part of homeopathy)

Question 15

Leonardo da Vinci

Answer 15

• likened metabolism to burning candle

Question 16

Paracelsus –

wort)

Answer 16

alchemist, physician, astrologer
used experimentation in learning about human body
experimented with dosage (“…no thing is without poison. The dosage makes it either a poison or a remedy”)
pioneered use of minerals and chemicals in medicine
concept of metabolism: body transformed food into fat, bone and other material, rejected what could not assimilate
but accepted “doctrine of signatures” – that plants bearing parts resembling human parts had relevancy to those parts (eg. liverwort)
(still part of homeopathy)
Dependence on opinions of authorities challenged (Galen’s views disputed – Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica)
William Harvey – Circulation of blood
USED EXPERIEMENTS TO SHOW
DOCUMENTED OBSERVATIONS

Question 17

C. The scientific attitude (17th century)

Answer 17

Accurate/reliable information about nature obtained by investigating it impersonally, using senses, experience and reason
learning approach used by Galileo, Francis Bacon, Descartes
Rejected authority and mystical thinking as ways of explaining natural phenomena

The scientific method is developed
process of learning from mistakes and proposing hypotheses (conjectures), then searching for evidence that they are wrong
“critical rationalism”- CRITICAL EVALUATION ESSENCE OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

accuracy and reliability of assumptions/hypotheses determined by ability to withstand criticism and experimental tests
eg. experiment of James Lind (1747)
clinical trial on scurvy in sailors at sea, treated 12 sailors at sea (2 got cider, 2 got sulfurique acid, 2 got seawater, 2 got garlic, mustard horseradish, 2 got vinegar, 2 got oranges and lemons

Question 18

D. Nutritional concepts arise from chemistry and physiology (18th century)

Answer 18

Metallurgy, alchemy (metal to gold)  chemistry and biology (scientific methodology)  organic chemistry and physiology (1700s)  nutritional concepts
chemical nature of digestion, oxidation
sugars isolated in blood, plants
nitrogen found in animal tissue, plant material
- nitrogenous food essential (dogs)

urea synthesized
single-nutrient (aliment) theory proven false
- higher animals require: saccharines (sugar), oily (fat)albuminous (protein)

Question 19

E. Development of nutrition as a science (19th century)

Answer 19

Scientific investigations with specific nutritional objectives
nutritive value of feedstuffs studied in domestic animals
theory that tissue proteins degraded in muscles (protein required  work done)
Nutritional investigations in food composition, energy/protein utilization, energy requirements

Development of nutrition as independent discipline
first textbook “the science of nutrition”- Lusk, 1906

Search for the essential nutrients
Links between diet and health
ex japanese prison of beri beri and what type of rice used

Question 20

Timeline of Nutritional Enlightenment

Answer 20

The first recorded nutritional experiment is found in the Bible’s Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel. Selected as court servants, they were to share in the king’s fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables (pulses) and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions. The king’s chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days and were then compared to the king’s men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet.

c. 475 BC: Anaxagoras states that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore contained “homeomerics” (generative components), thereby deducing the existence of nutrients.
c. 400 BC: Hippocrates says, “Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food.”

1500s: Scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle.
1747: Dr. James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment, discovering that lime juice saved sailors who had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as “limeys.” The essential vitamin C within lime juice would not be identified by scientists until the 1930s.
1770: Antoine Lavoisier, the “Father of Nutrition and Chemistry” discovered the details of metabolism, demonstrating that the oxidation of food is the source of body heat.
1790: George Fordyce recognized calcium necessary for fowl survival.

Question 21

homeometrics

Answer 21

. 475 BC: Anaxagoras states that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore contained “homeomerics” (generative components), thereby deducing the existence of nutrients.

Question 22

“Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food.”

Answer 22

c. 400 BC: Hippocrates says

Question 23

Modern era through 1941

Answer 23

Early 1800s: The elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen were recognized as the primary components of food, and methods to measure their proportions were developed.
1816: François Magendie discovers that dogs fed only carbohydrates and fat lost their body protein and died in a few weeks, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an essential dietary component.
1840: Justus Liebig discovers the chemical makeup of carbohydrates (sugars), fats (fatty acids) and proteins (amino acids).
1860s: Claus Bernard discovers that body fat can be synthesised from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.
Early 1880s: Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis) but British sailors did not. Adding milk and meat to Japanese diets prevented the disease.

1896: Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands.
1897: Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who also suffered from beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi, but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1 (thiamine).
Early 1900s: Carl Von Voit and Max Rubner independently measure caloric energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition.

1906: Wilcock and Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan was necessary for the survival of mice. Gowland Hopkins recognized “accessory food factors” other than calories, protein and minerals, as organic materials essential to health but which the body cannot synthesise.
1907: Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart conduct the Single-grain experiment. This experiment runs through 1911.
1912: Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin, a vital factor in the diet, from the words “vital” and “amine,” because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra, were thought then to be derived from ammonia.
1913: Elmer V. McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat soluble vitamin A, and water soluble vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and names vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy.
1919: Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency, because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil.[1]

1922: McCollum destroys the vitamin A in cod liver oil but finds it still cures rickets, naming vitamin D
1922: H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it “food factor X” until 1925.
1925: Hart discovers trace amounts of copper are necessary for iron absorption.
1927: Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesizes vitamin D, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928.
1928: Albert Szent-Gyorgyi isolates ascorbic acid, and in 1932 proves that it is vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1935 he synthesizes it, and in 1937 he wins a Nobel Prize for his efforts. Szent-Gyorgyi concurrently elucidates much of the citric acid cycle.
1930s: William Cumming Rose identifies essential amino acids, necessary proteins which the body cannot synthesize
1935: Underwood and Marston independently discover the necessity of cobalt.
1936: Eugene Floyd Dubois shows that work and school performance are related to caloric intake.
1938: The chemical structure of vitamin E is discovered by Erhard Fernholz, and it is synthesised by Paul Karrer.
1941: The first Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were established by the National Research Council.
1942: “Canada’s Food Rules” issued

Question 24

1816: François Magendie

Answer 24

discovers that dogs fed only carbohydrates and fat lost their body protein and died in a few weeks, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an essential dietary component.

Question 25

1840: Justus Liebig

Answer 25

discovers the chemical makeup of carbohydrates (sugars), fats (fatty acids) and proteins (amino acids).

Question 26

1860s: Claus Bernard

Answer 26

discovers that body fat can be synthesised from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.

Question 27

Early 1880s: Kanehiro Takaki

Answer 27

observed that Japanese sailors developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis) but British sailors did not. Adding milk and meat to Japanese diets prevented the disease.

Question 28

RDA ESTABLISHED IN

Answer 28

1941: The first Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were established by the National Research Council.

Question 29

1945-1985

Answer 29

KWASHIORKOR
green revolution
othe EFA
fiber, diets (cholesterol)...
CHO loading
medeteranian diet