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Question 1

what are the 6 different sub-divisions of bio-psychology?

Answer 1

physiological psychology
psychopharmacology 
neuropsychology
psychophysiology
cognitive neuroscience
comparative psychology

Question 2

define ethology

Answer 2

study of animal behaviour

Question 3

define inherited behavioural tendencies

Answer 3

the idea that behaviour is inherited and present at birth rather than learned (innate)

Question 4

give a study in which supports inherited behavioural tendencies
give a study in which builds upon inherited behavioural tendencies

Answer 4

TINBERGEN argued that animals come into the world with instincts already adapted to their environments, he experimented on herring gull chicks who peck at a red spot on their parents beak in order be feed. He thought that this was a fixed action pattern, therefore he took new born chicks who had never learned to peck at their parents beaks. he found that they would peck at moving stimuli/pointed stimuli/stimuli with contrasting foreground and background shade. they pecked the most at black and red pointed beaks positioned at the end of the bill. therefore behaviour is innate.
HAILMAN argued that all behaviour is an interaction between inherited tendencies and learning. he studied laughing gull chick pecking accuracy. he found that new born chicks were relatively accurate at pecking but 2-day-old chicks were even more accurate.

Question 5

define fixed action pattern

Answer 5

is a series or sequence of acts that occur behaviourally in animals. This sequence is unchangeable and will be carried out to completion once started, regardless of changes in the original stimulus.

Question 6

how does GLEITMANS study support pre-programmed human behaviours?

Answer 6

deaf and blind children smile and laugh even though they have never seen or heard others perform this behaviour, therefore this behaviour is innate

Question 7

how does the moro-reflex support that behaviour is innate?

Answer 7

if you briefly remove the support behind a babies head it’ll jerk its limbs towards the mid-line of its body making a grasping action with its hands.
this is further supported to be an innate behaviour- it is a primate adaption because in apes when the mother moves the baby must hold on, if not they will plunge to their deaths.

Question 8

define natural selection

Answer 8

charles darwins theory that species with adaptive advantages will survive.
survival of the fittest

Question 9

what is needed in order for natural selection to occur

Answer 9

competition over limited resources. biological variation

Question 10

how is evolutionary success measured?

Answer 10

in terms of long-term biological survival e.g. passing on genetics

Question 11

define altruism

give the biological definition

Answer 11

selfless concern for others

donor incurs a reproductive loss while the recipient incurs a reproductive benefit

Question 12

give some evidence of altruism among humans

Answer 12

Gallup (2016) 145,000 people, 18% gave money to a homeless person and 30% helped strangers
Warneken and tomasello (2007) humans show a tendency to help others from an early age. gives evidence that it is an innate tendency

Question 13

give evidence of altruism among animals
chimpanzees
lions
prairie dogs
honeybees

Answer 13

warneken et al (2007) found helping behaviour in wild-raised chimpanzees (passed humans an object when they were struggling to reach it)
lions cooperatively hunt and share the kill, lionesses will suckle the young of other females
prairie dogs give an alarm call on spotting a predator. by calling the individual increases the risk that the individual will be detected, however they selflessly ca;; anyway
honeybees will fight to the death to protect their queen

Question 14

why does altruism contradict natural selection?

Answer 14

because altruism reduces individual reproductive success, instead it increases the long-term survival of the individuals genetics

Question 15

give an example of reproductive altruism

Answer 15

many social insects contain sterile workers who dedicate their lives to raising and protecting offspring of their ‘queen’

Question 16

in what instances doesnt altruism contradict natural selection?

Answer 16

darwin didnt have knowledge of genes.
relatives have a higher proportion of their genes than non-relatives therefore if you view reproductive success in terms of saving ones genes than altruism doesn’t contradict survival of the fittest. because by protecting your relatives you are continuing the survival of your genes

Question 17

what is hamiltons inclusive fitness theory and what is it also known as

Answer 17

hamilton (1963) argued that fittness (reproductive success) should be measured in terms of promoting one genes, including those copes we share with relatives
i.e. by promoting the survival of our kin were also promoting our own long-term genetic survival
KIN SELECTION

Question 18

what is the difference between direct reproductive success and indirect reproductive success

Answer 18

-the actual young that the individual produces
(basically darwins theory)
-contribution to the survival and reproduction of the copies of ones genes contained in ones relatives (Hamiltons extension)

Question 19

what is hamiltons rule

Answer 19

rB>C
r=relatedness (proportion of shared genes)
B=benefit to the recipient (how many more offspring are produced)
C= lost to the altruist

Question 20

give evidence of hamiltons inclusive fitness theory

Answer 20

Hoogland (1963) found that prairie dogs were more likely to alarm call at the sight of a predator when close relatives were present
Madsen et al (2007) Ps endured the skiing position longer in order to win money for themselves and relatives than distant relatives and charity

Question 21

define reciprocal altruism

Answer 21

trivers (1972) “ill scratch your back now, if you scratch mine later”
both individuals incur a lost and a benefit

Question 22

what are the conditions needed for reciprocal altruism

Answer 22

Trivers stated that reciprocal altruism would be rare in nature because certain conditions are needed

• species need to be long-lived and in stable social groups
• must be able to keep track of past exchange

Question 23

give evidence of reciprocal altruism
bats
monkeys

Answer 23

wilkinson found blood sharing in vampire bats. he formed 2 mixed groups from 2 natural clusters. he starved a bat, on return the bats were fed by their own original group. reciprocal partnership was observed

vervet monkeys who had been groomed by a non-relative was more likely to help them if they got involed in a fight

Question 24

what is game theory?

what is the most famous example

Answer 24

a mathematical modelling study, it uses rational decision making in conflict and cooperation
THE PRISON DILEMMA

Question 25

define sexual selection

Answer 25

(its a complementary process to natural selection) "traits that promote mating and reproductive success"

Question 26

what are traits that compromise personal survival and therefore bypass natural selection? e.g. peacocks

Answer 26

traits that reduce survival but increase sexual selection, peacocks have a huge tail that makes being caught much easier, but theyve evolved this way because peahens like them. peahens reject males with reduced numbers of eyespots and often mate with those with iridescent eyespots

Question 27

define sexual dimorphism

Answer 27

"the difference between male and female physical and behavioural traits" darwin though sexual selection could explain these differences

Question 28

what are the four different basis's for sexual dimorphism

Answer 28

male to male competition- males need to fight for females, they posses physical features for this. female choice- males posses certain features because females prefer them females are choosey- females make a greater overall investment and therefore they have more to loose if they mate with a poor quality mate males woo, females choose- females can only become pregnant once, but males can implement mulitple pregancies, hence males benefit from every extra chance of mating they get

Question 29

descibe paternity uncertainty

Answer 29

males cant be certain that the babies are theres. explains why males favour chastity

Question 30

how do you work out potential reproduction rate (PR). what does it mean for sexual selection?

Answer 30

it is the max number of mating required for max potential offspring produced whichevers sex's PR is in short supply it becomes valuable and worth competing for

Question 31

why do men prefer younger women and women prefer older men

Answer 31

females period of fertility is 13-45, mens period is 13-65 females prefer men 2.99 years older, and males prefer 2.66 years younger women prefer older because it indicates fittness and health and status to have reached that age. men prefer younger because it indicates fertility

Question 32

how does physical attrativeness vary acroess cultures

Answer 32

all cultures are attracted to indicators of fitness and health Body shape is studied in waist:hip or WHR.- there is a difference in WHR depending on cultures, western cultures prefer 0.7 WHR whereas other cultures prefer 0.9 WHR

Question 33

describe theories relating to facial attrativeness

Answer 33

attrative=average=fit Thornhill and gangestad found that the proteins which indicate genetic adaptibility is highest in individuals with average traits. Women with average faces had fewer past health problems. were more attracted to average faces attractive=symmetrical=fit symmetry is associated with parasite resistance feminised faces are more attractive- women find feminised faces more attractive because it indicates long-term potential partner and a willingness to invest. masculine faces indicate short-term

Question 34

describe dimorphism in human mate choice

Answer 34

women evolved to seek men with good genes, ability to supply resources and help with childcare, men seek fertile mates, good genes and faithful. in a recent questionnaire by Buss, of cultures earning potential and ambition are valued by women, phyical attributes and chastisy are valued by men

Question 35

what is Hoffman's developmentt on Lorenz's theory

Answer 35

imprinting theory Hoffmen exposed 3 days old chicks (after critical period) to a moving triangle, at first they were avoident. however their fear subsided and they imprinted on the triangle. therefore imprinting is flexible suggesting there is a sensitive period rather than critical period

Question 36

what is Hailmans development on Tinbergens theory

Answer 36

Hailman found that after 2 days gull chicks will only peck at naturalstic looking peaks. thus flexability in the system allows chicks to learn and refine behaviour based on experience

Question 37

what did the minnesota twin study find

Answer 37

twins raised apart or together are of interest because genetic components remain constant but the environment differs. they found inheritable traits

Question 38

how do genes affect behaviour? polygenic intelligence

Answer 38

behaviour is the result of interactions of several genes intelligence is a mixture of genes and enviromental factors tyron- maze-dull and male-bright rats he found that there was a inherited component in learning

Question 39

describe the subdivisions of the nervous system

Answer 39

PNS CNS ANS SNS brain spinal (involuntary) (voluntary) PNS SNS

Question 40

what was the historic views of the brain

Answer 40

egyptain- mummification aristotle- the heart was the superior organ Gall- found that certain brain regions have localised functions Cajal- described how cells communicate via electrodes Berger- recorded electrical activity

Question 41

how is the PNS protected?

Answer 41

Meninges which is 3 layers of membrane 1 dura,thick 2 arachnoid, soft and spongey 3 pia, delicate • CSF- cerebrospinal fluid which surrounds the spinal cord, the BBB controls what fluids enter the CSF, it is found between 2 and 3 layer • Blood brain barrier- controls what enters, it is selectively perimable

Question 42

describe the 2 different divisions of the autonomic NS

Answer 42

``` sympathetic NS- fight or flights response heart rate dialates eyes slows digestion increases respiration increases adreanline parasympathetic NS- conserves energy rest and relaxation slows down body processes ```

Question 43

what are the theories of biological basis of emotion

Answer 43

James-lange theory- autonomic activity and emotion-induced behaviour (heart-rate) produce the feeling of emotion see bear-- physiological reaction--emotion cannon-bard theory; states that emotional stimuli and 2 parallel effects, the feeling of emotion and the expression bear--physiological reaction and emotion current- sensory stimuli, physiological reaction and the feeling of emotion all interact and influence eachother

Question 44

what are the 2 different areas involved in the brain

Answer 44

the limbic system; the amygdala, the hippocampus, the hypothalamus, anterior cingulate cortex and the pre-frontal cortex

Question 45

describe functions and damage of the limbic system

Answer 45

amygdala- form and store emotional memories. damage results in the loss of feeling fear hippocampus- involved in emotional memroies. damage cant form new memories hypothalamus- involved in the secretion of neurohormones. damgage loss of motivation anterior cingulate cortex- involved in cognitive and emotional components. damage OCD depression anxiety

Question 46

desribe function and damage of pre-frontal cortex

Answer 46

involved in control and regulation of emotional responses. damage phinas gage became impulsive, unreliable, defiects in emotional processing

Question 47

what is the disagreement in relation to biological basis of emotion and testostrone

Answer 47

testostrone is increased during competition and is linked to agression however other studies suggest that testostrone isnt linked to aggression as individuals reciving doses of testostrone report increased happiness and sexial acitivty and hostility but not aggression

Question 48

define sensory transduction

Answer 48

process by which limited biological machinary can make meaningful sense of enviromental information

Question 49

describe cones and rods

Answer 49

Helmholtz & Hering rods provide night vision cones provide coloured vision cones have 3 diffeent kinds of wave lengths which is why our coloured vision is trichromatic- meaning all the colours we see are a mix of 3 colours. the density of cons are higher a the fova which is tthe centra of the retina, where light falls, which means we have good coloured vision for objects we fixate on the density of rods is higher outside the fova

Question 50

describe processes of the visual cortex

Answer 50

Hubel & Wiesel retinal ganglion cells feed visual information to the cortex. the V1 is a large part of the cortex which further processes visual information edge detection in the V1, v1 cells respond to lines of a particular orintation grand mother cells- there is a hiarchy of visual cells which repsond to different/specific objects

Question 51

describe the psychophysics of sound

Answer 51

Amplitude meaning loudness. the height of the bars Frequency meaning pitch. the distance between bars Complexity meaning how simple or complex a sound is

Question 52

describe the components of the ear

Answer 52

Outer ear: pinna and aural canal which filters sound Middle ear: tympanic membrane which protects the inner ear from loud noise. the ossicles which amplify vibrations for better transmission to the fluid in the inner ear Inner ear: Cochlea which transfers soundwaves to the fluid of the inner ear which transmits vibrations to the organ of corti

Question 53

describe Place coding in the cochlea

Answer 53

Bekesy discovered different parts of the boscular membrane along the coil of the cochlea which have hair cells that are stimulated by different frequencies which care used by the brain to decode pitch information

Question 54

describe the Superior olivary complex (SOC) and sound localisation

Answer 54

the difference between when sound arrives to the ear can be used to calculate where the sound is coming from. the SOC contains cells with differences in the length of fibres which repsond to these time differences

Question 55

describe the auditory brain

Answer 55

neural signals pass from the cochlea to the brain stem, then to the superior ouvary nucleus, to the thalamus and then to the auditory cortex once sound enters the auditory cortex it enters conscious awareness. damage to this area results in a loss or aural awareness (sense of hearing)

Question 56

define Somatosensation § Cutaneous touch § Proprioception § Interoception

Answer 56

"touch" cuteneous touch- "receptors in the skin detect different aspects of the skin" proprioception "is receptors in the muscles which tells us about movement and posture" interoception " is mechanical receptors in the internal organs"

Question 57

describe the somatosensory brain

Answer 57

has 2 different pathways; dorsal pathway and spinothalamic pathway somatosensory neurons which are arranged somatotopically whuch lets important touch areas have more processing resources

Question 58

define Chemosensation

Answer 58

"taste" substance- interacts with saluva-solution-taste pores-receptor cell describe receptors on the tongue- back (bitter), sides (sour), front (salty/sweet)

Question 59

define olfaction

Answer 59

"smell" | molcules in the air pass into the nose and diffuse into mucus. this detects hazards and phenomones

Question 60

describe the multi-sensory brain

Answer 60

senses are combined and influence eachother at early stages of processing, this is called sensory convergence

Question 61

describe the 4 different brain orintations

Answer 61

superior/dorsal- view from above posterior- view from the back arterior- view from the front inferior/ventral- view from bottom

Question 62

describe the 4 different planes of the brain

Answer 62

coronal- cut down the middle through the ears saggital- cut down the middle through the eyes horzontal- cut through the forehead

Question 63

describe the 4 different vascular systems

Answer 63

vascular meaning arteries middle cerebral arteries- supply to the temporal and parietal lobes and some of the occpital lobe posteior cerebral arteries- supply yo yhr occpital lobe anterior cerebral arteries- supply to frontal lobe basilar artery- supplies to brain stem

Question 64

describe where the major parts of the brain is

Answer 64

frontal lobe parietal occipital temporal

Question 65

what is the hindbrain, forebrain and midbrain

Answer 65

forebrain-top of the stem midbrain-middle of the stem hindbrain- bottom of the stem hindbrain has 4 structures; pons helps coordinate midbrain and forebrain, medulla controls breathing heartrate, pinal cord and cerebellum important for motor control midbrain important for movement forebrain contains thalamus, hypothalmas and hippocampus. imbic system and Basal Ganglia

Question 66

describe the different fibres in the brain

Answer 66

association- connect areas wihtin the same hemisphere | Commisural - connect equivalent areas in the 2 hemispheres

Question 67

describe the types of cortex

Answer 67

archicortex- the oldest paleocortex- also old neocortex- only present in mammals, associated with higher brain functioning

Question 68

whats the difference between grey and white matter

Answer 68

grey is cell bodies | white is axons and myellin

Question 69

define modularity

Answer 69

althought we map areas into specific modules with specific roles, functions are never concentrated. one area may be more activated but activation is distributed

Question 70

localisation of brain function

Answer 70

``` frontal lobe higher order cuntions prefrontal cortex decision making and personality temporal lobe object and facial recognition motor cortex movement occipital lobe vision partietal lobe relating to the sense of body ```

Question 71

lateralisation of brain function

Answer 71

``` left analytical logic language science and maths right hollistic creativity arts and music ```

Question 72

what are the historical findings for brain cells

Answer 72

galvinism- demonstrated that nerves conduct electricity. electrical conduction Loewi- demonstrated that neurons communicate through chemical tranmisson

Question 73

desribe gilla cells

Answer 73

they surround and hold neurons in place, whilst supplying tbem with neutrients and oxygen. they also remove dead neurons 3 different gilla cells

Question 74

describe structure of a nerve cell

Answer 74

dentrite- recieves messages from other neurons. dentritic spines increase surface area axon-carries info from the soma to the presynaptic terminal cell body- containing soma mylin shealth- covers axon

Question 75

what is a nerve impulse

Answer 75

an action potential that travels along the dendrite to the axon as it travels along the axon there is a change in poloarity

Question 76

how do the ions move through the channels during depolarisation and polarisation

Answer 76

electrostatic gradients- +ions attracted to -ions | diffusion gradients- high conc attracted to low conc

Question 77

step by step of nerve impulse

Answer 77

1 begins when a stimulus distrubs the plasma membrane causing the sodium channels to open 2once at the threshold, a chain reaction begins along the axon 3 depolarisation. sodium channels open allowing Na+ ions into the axon, making the cell positively charged 4 action potential 5 repolarisation, which changes action potential to resting potential. the sodum channels close, the potassium channels open allowing K+ ions into the axon, repolarising the celll making it negative again 5refractory period where the cell cannot fire 6 resting state

Question 78

what is action potential

Answer 78

the moving of depolarisation

Question 79

describe threshold

Answer 79

to fire a neuron must reach a threshold. the membrane potential must reach between -55 5o -40 mV

Question 80

desribe exitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potential

Answer 80

depolarising of the membrane, turning it from negative to positive, making it more likely to fire hyperpolarising which makes it more negative, making it less likely to fire

Question 81

what do the Nodes of Rahvier do?

Answer 81

nerve impulses jump from rach node of rahvier to the next. the mylien sheath speeds up the conduction thanks to the nodes

Question 82

describe re-uptake

Answer 82

after the neurotransmitters have achieved their effect, the channels close and the vesicales are recycled

Question 83

what are the symptoms of schizophrenia

Answer 83

``` disorganised behaviour and speech delusions (positive symptom) hallucinations (positive symptom) lack of motivation (negative symptom) social withdrawal (negative smyptom) falltened emotional response (negative symptom) ```

Question 84

what are the different theories for schizophrenia

Answer 84

Dopeamine hypothesis- Drugs reduce dopamine in the brain by blocking dopamine receptors. this raised the theory that schizophrenia is due to too much dopemine. but recent research states that SZ is related to an overactive dopeamine system which means the receptors that signal to increase or reduce dopemine are faulty. Genes- high coordance rate in mz twins, epigenic neural-large ventricles in the cerebral cortex is common in SZ patients, this is important for attnetion, language and the limbic brain regions environment- prenatal, stress, pollution, cannabis

Question 85

describe treatment for SZ

Answer 85

dopamine drugs only act on positive symptoms there are significant side effects cognitive behavioural therapy

Question 86

what are the symtoms of ASD

Answer 86

social communication- challenge with communication, lack of the use of non-verbal behaviour and lack of emotional reciprocity repetitive behaviour and restircted interest- inflexiable to routines

Question 87

what are the theories for ASD

Answer 87

ToM the concept that we understand that others have different brains that think and feel different things to use. thus, this may relate to diffculty in perceptive taking and communication in ASD. The Sally-Ann study, 20% of ASD gave the right answer, 85% of atypical got the right answer genetics- MZ twins coordance rate is 60% epigenics brain- is normal at birth but undergoes dramatic growth in the firest year leading to larger than average brains mirror neurons- involved in the imitation and learning of observed behaviour. is important for recognising emotion in others therefore may be related to ASD. enviromental- pollution, materal factors,

Question 88

treatment for ASD

Answer 88

ToM training | speech and language therapy

Question 89

Homozygotes vs Heterozygotes

Answer 89

A heterozygous individual is someone who has two different alleles at a locus, Aa A homozygous individual has two identical alleles at a locus AA

Question 90

genotype vs phenotype

Answer 90

An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries | phenotype is the obserable characteristics

Question 91

gamete vs somatic cell

Answer 91

Non-sex (somatic) vs Sex cells (gamete

Question 92

diploid vs haploid cell

Answer 92

the haploid cells have 23 chromosomes, versus the 46 in the diploid cells

Question 93

Autosomes vs Allosomes

Answer 93

Autosomes (non sex chromosomes) vs Allosomes (sex chromosomes)

Question 94

Mitosis vs Meiosis

Answer 94

mitosis- exact replicas (diploid) | meisos- sex cell division (haploid)

Question 95

lamarckism, blending theory, law of segregation and law of independent assortment

Answer 95

inhertiance of aquried characteristics traits from both parents mix together a gene may exist in 2 or more different alleles, the 2 forms one from each parents the inheritance of one gene is not affected by the inheritance of another

Question 96

difference between DNA and RNA

Answer 96

deoxyribose adenline, thymine, quanine and cytosine rna swap uricul for thymine

Question 97

zygot and codon

Answer 97

fertilized cell | triplet sequence of hydrogen bonds, ACT

Question 98

who came up with reciprical altrism

Answer 98

trivers

Question 99

Parental Investment theory

Answer 99

females have more to lose if they copulate with a ”poor quality” male because they make a greater overall parental investment (PI).