1. Cytology, Basic Genetics & Histology Flashcards

Question

Cell memory

Answer 1

Cell memory describes the ability of cells to remember experiences which influence vital force in our cells & body Traumatic experiences & even negative beliefs may be stored as a negative charge of energy in cells Vital force is free flowing through the body in a healthy person but can become blocked creating the possibility for disease.

Answer 2

A disruption of body physiology can cause disease Cells are interconnected, when this is disrupted, diseases manifest in these organs

Answer 3

Occurs due to toxins, stress, smoking, diets rich in refined sugar & processed foods Oxidative damage influences key cell structures & even causes genetic mutations - this occurs during the development of cancer

Answer 4

They cause oxidative damage Unstable & highly reactive molecules, looking for a spare electron and will rob other to get it Missing electrons can be donated by an antioxidant

Answer 5

Neutralises free radicals - Vitamin C - Vitamin E - Beta-Carotene - Vitamin A

Answer 6

No nucleus & no membrane bound organelles Far smaller (very few structures) Has a cell wall Prokaryotic cells include: bacteria Cell division through binary fission (rapid mitosis)

Answer 7

Contains a nucleus & membrane bound organelles Bigger No cell wall in humans, online in plants & fungi Eukaryotic cells include:human/animal, plants & fungi Cell division through mitosis

Answer 8

Provides strength & rigidity to cells and surround the cell membrane

Answer 9

Basic watery fluid inside a cell

Answer 10

Small specialised structures within the cell, e.g. ribosomes produce proteins

Answer 11

Cell content excluding the nucleus (includes the cytosol & organelles)

Answer 12

Flexible, semi-permeable membrane that separates the cells external and internal environment Structurally it is a phospholipid bilayer The membrane is embedded with transmembrane proteins & other fats e.g. cholesterol The membrane controls substance movement in and out of cells

Answer 13

The 'hydrophobic' lipid tails face inwards whilst the 'hydrophobic' phosphate heads face outwards

Answer 14

Water hating

Answer 15

Water loving

Answer 16

1. Transport of substances in & out of cells: this includes the movement of charged particles, e.g. Hydrogen and larger molecules like glucose 2. Immunological identity: helps our immune cells recognise our own cells (stops our WBC from attacking our body cells) 3. Receptors: recognition sites for hormones etc.

Answer 17

1. Tight junctions: found in the stomach, intestines and bladder. They fuse together (transmembrane proteins) to reinforce the junctions & seal off passageways (prevents leaking) 2. Gap junctions - small fluid filled tunnels between neighbouring cells e.g. nerves

Answer 18

- Nucleus (& nucleolus) - Mitochondria - Ribosomes - Endoplasmic reticulum ER - Golgi apparatus - Lysosomes - Cytoskeleton

Answer 19

The nucleus is a spherical structure that contains the body's genetic information in the form of DNA The nucleus controls all cell functions, hence is the 'brain of the cell'. It contains a 'nucleolus' which produces RNA

Answer 20

RBC - These lose their nucleus during development to maximise the space available to carry oxygen

Answer 21

Surrounded by a doubled layered 'nuclear membrane' which separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm The membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum ER The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores for substance movement in & out of the nucleus

Answer 22

Thread like structures of nucleic acids & proteins found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes The hereditary units called 'genes' are arranged along chromosomes. Chromosomes of formed of DNA that has coiled up

Answer 23

46 chromosomes (or 23 pairs)

Answer 24

23 chromosomes

Answer 25

Proteins which double helix DNA coils around

Answer 26

thread like fibres of DNA before condensing into chromosomes

Answer 27

If there is a genetic disease on the single X chromosome, the Y cannot counteract it; this may lead to sex linked, genetic diseases in males.

Answer 28

Genes are sub-sections of DNA that act as instructions to make proteins. They are located along chromosomes (there are thousands per chromosome. A gene holds the information to build & maintain cells and mass genetic traits to offspring All body cells (somatic cells) contain the full genome (full set of genes) One gene codes for the production of one protein Only certain genes are working depending on the cell's job (only certain genes are switched on)

Answer 29

The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments (microtubules & microfilaments) that extend through the cytosol

Answer 30

1. Generate cell movement: e.g. enable white blood cells to migrate to sites of injury. In muscle cells, they are the organelles that enable muscle contraction 2. Physical support & shape: they determine the cell shape 3. Cell division: they move chromosomes apart

Answer 31

'cell powerhouse' - generate ATP. Cells can contain one hundred to several thousand mitochondria, depending on the cell. Muscle cells (including those in the heart) contain the most. They use ATP to generate muscle contraction. They are located near where oxygen enters cells or where ATP is used in the cell. Mitochondria use oxygen & nutrients such as glucose to create ATP in a process called 'aerobic respiration'. They contain a double-layered membrane with fluid in between. The inner membrane has a series of folds called 'cristae' which produce a vast surface area for reactions.

Answer 32

(adenosine triphosphate) The energy currency of blood cells

Answer 33

Ribosomes act as the sites of protein synthesis. Their name reflects the high content of ribonucleic acid (RNA) Ribosome's are either free/mobile (in cytoplasm) or stationary (bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum) Free ribosomes make protein for inside the cell, whilst those on the rough endoplasmic reticulum make protein for outside the cell. They synthesise proteins for specific organelles, which they export from the cells, e.g. hormones

Answer 34

The ER is a network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs The ER extends from the nuclear envelope throughout the cytoplasm, to the cell membrane It's outer surface is studded with ribosomes (hence rough appearance) - Synthesises & transports proteins

Answer 35

The smooth ER contains no ribosomes (smooth appearance). It contains unique enzymes and performs the following: - Synthesises lipids & steroid hormones e.g. oestrogen - In the liver, enzymes of smooth ER detoxify alcohol & drugs - In muscle, it releases calcium for muscle contraction

Answer 36

'The cell post office' It modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteins received from the rough ER It consists of flattened membranous sacs. Most cells have several Golgi Apparatuses. A transport vesicle that buds off from the rough ER moves towards the Golgi Apparatus and releases proteins into it. Enzymes modify the proteins and they bud off in transport vesicles.

Answer 37

They have a cell role in 'cell digestion' Lysosomes recycle worn out organelles; they engulf and digest these and the components are returned to the cytosol for reuse. They are digest foreign cells. They contain as many as 60 powerful enzymes which breakdown a variety of molecules once fused with them Lysosomes also release enzymes externally e.g. with sperm to assist egg entry

Answer 38

Somatic cells reproduce via mitosis - One division creating two identical daughter cells A full set of chromosomes is first duplicated and then evenly divided into both daughter cells. The chromosomes are pulled apart by the protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton Purpose: growth & repair

Answer 39

Meiosis describes the process through which gametes/sex cells are formed Produces four haploid cells through two divisions The four cells produced are non-identical as the chromosomes overlap (genetic variability)

Answer 40

Female gamete/sex cell Larger and immobile

Answer 41

Male gamete/sex cell smaller and mobile (due to it's tail/flagellum)

Answer 42

Describes the fusion of a male and a female gamete This leads to the formation of a zygote (a diploid cell) which has two copies of each chromosome (23 pairs) - one from each parent

Answer 43

A mutation describes a change in the genetic information (DNA sequence of A,T,C,G) A mutation changes this sequence through different mechanisms, (changing the output/faulty). Mutations in gametes (sex cells) ARE passed onto offspring. Mutations in somatic cells can NOT be inherited. Mutations can occur by chance or be induced by mutagenic agents, e.g. radiation smoking, vaccines

Answer 44

Cells use the DNA code as a template for the syntheses of a specific protein Protein synthesis includes two phases: 1. Transcription: a copy of one gene is made into mRNA. This travels out of the nucleus to a ribosome. 2. Translation: The ribosomes reads the code and produces a chain of amino acids to form the required protein.

Answer 45

Substances can move in & out of cells through the cell membrane Transport of materials across the cell membrane is essential to cell life Certain substances must move into the cell to support various functions such as metabolism & immunity, whilst substances must also be excreted from the cell. Two main types of movement: passive transport & active transport

Answer 46

Passive transport describes the movement os substances from an area of high to low concentration (down the concentration gradient) Requires NO energy The three types of passive transport are: 1. Diffusion 2. Osmosis 3. Facilitated diffusion

Answer 47

1. Diffusion: the movement of small substances from high to low concentration e.g. gases 2. Osmosis: the passive movement of water 3. Facilitated diffusion: the movement of larger substances (such as glucose & charged molecules) from high to low concentrations with the aid of transmembrane proteins

Answer 48

Active transport describes the movement of substances from an area of low to high concentration ( up the concentration gradient) Requires energy (ATP) The main examples of active transport are: 1. Pumps 2. Endocytosis 3. Exocytosis

Answer 49

1. Pumps: (e.g. sodium-potassium pump) use protein pumps in the cell membrane to allow specific molecules up the concentration gradient 2. Endocytosis: engulfing of particles into the cell through cell membrane extensions 3. Exocytosis: removal of waste from the cell. The material fuses with the cell membrane before being expelled

Answer 50

A tissue is a group of specialised cells with a similar function. The four types of tissues are: 1. Epithelial tissue 2. Connective tissue 3. muscular tissue 4. nervous tissue

Answer 51

Covers parts of the body Cells are closely packed together Divided into 'covering' or 'glandular epithelium' Epithelial tissue provides a selective barrier, for protection & secretion of substances Epithelial tissue is located in blood vessels, the heart, lungs, reproductive organs, urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract (GIT), skin & eyes

Answer 52

A gland is a single cell or groups of epithelial cells that produce secretions. There are two types: 1. Exocrine glands: Secrete their products into ducts. Secretions includes saliva, milk, sebum, sweat, enzymes 2. Endocrine glands: Enter interstitial fluid and then diffuse into blood. These glands produce hormones

Answer 53

Most abundant tissue, including bone, cartilage and blood Connective tissues are formed of two basic elements: 1. Extracellular matrix 2. Cells (widely spread apart)

Answer 54

Formed of 'ground substance' & 'protein fibres' Ground substance - is between cells and helps determine the functionality of the tissue (fluid, semi-fluid or calcified). The protein fibres - are collagen & elastic

Answer 55

The cells are widely spaced apart unlike epithelium -These include cells that synthesise the protein fibres (fibroblasts), white blood cells & fat cells

Answer 56

1. Fibroblasts: Large and most numerous cells. Secrete protein fibres to make collagen & elastic fibres. Active in repair & healing. 2. Adipocytes: Store triglycerides (fat) 3. White blood cells: - Macrophages = engulf foreign cells (phagocytes) - Lymphocytes = Produces antibodies - Mast cells = release inflammatory chemicals

Answer 57

Made from the protein collagen Strong fibres Especially in bone, ligaments, tendons Occur in parallel bundles for extra strength

Answer 58

Made from the protein elastin, surrounded by glycoprotein to add strength Smaller diameter Strong but stretchy. Allow tissue to return to original shape In skin, blood vessel walls, and lung tissue

Answer 59

1. Structural framework (bone, cartilage) 2. Transport nutrients & waste (blood) 3. Protection for vital organs (bone, cartilage, adipose) 4. Support & interconnection (tendons, ligaments, etc.) 5. Insulation (adipose tissue) 6. Energy store 7. Production of blood & lymphatic cells (adipose tissue, bone marrow) 8. Defence & repair (blood, lymph)

Answer 60

Membranes in the body combine epithelial & connective tissues Membranes are flat sheets that cover or line areas of the body Four types of membranes in the body: 1. Cutaneous membrane (the skin) 2. Mucous membrane 3. Serous membrane 4. Synovial membrane

Answer 61

Line hollow organs that open to a surface of the body. They line the entire digestive tract, respiratory & genito-urinary tracts The epithelial layer contains goblet cells that produce & secrete mucus - a slimy fluid which: 1. Protects: the lining membrane from mechanical and chemical injury/drying (e.g. in the stomach) 2. Traps: foreign particles in the respiratory tract (before they are removed by microscopic hairs called cilia).

Answer 62

Line body cavities that do NOT open to the exterior They are double layered, containing an: 1. Inner 'visceral layer' - surrounds organs 2. Outer 'parietal layer' - lines a cavity (between the visceral & parietal layers lies serous fluid (enables an organ to glide freely within the cavity without friction

Answer 63

1. PERICARDIUM: surrounding the HEART 2. PLEURA: lining the thoracic cavity and surrounding the LUNGS 3. PERITONEUM: lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding ABDOMINAL ORGANS (and some pelvic organs)

Answer 64

The synovial membranes contain cells called 'synoviocytes', which secrete synovial fluid Synovial fluid lubricates & nourishes the moveable joint cavities which it bathes

Answer 65

(glucose) + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + ATP Body favours using glucose, but could also use fatty acids and as a last resort amino acids (proteins) Carbon dioxide & water are a byproduct of creating ATP

Answer 66

lipid based hormones

Answer 67

A, T, C, G Pairs: (A+T) (C+G)

1. Cytology, Basic Genetics & Histology Flashcards

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