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12. Respiratory > 1. Histology of the Respiratory System > Flashcards

1. Histology of the Respiratory System Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the broad functions of the respiratory system?

A

To ensure all tissues receive the oxygen that they need and can dispose of the carbon dioxide they produce.

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2
Q

What is the kinetic theory of gases?

A

Gases are a collection of molecules moving around a space, generating pressure by colliding with the walls of the space. As collisions become more frequent and harder, pressure goes up.

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3
Q

What is Boyle’s law?

A

If a given amount of gas is compressed into a smaller volume, the molecules will hit the wall more often, therefore pressure will rise. If the temperature is constant, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

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4
Q

What is Charles’ law?

A

The kinetic energy of molecules increases with temperature. As temperature increases, the molecules hit the walls more often, so pressure increases. Pressure is proportional to absolute temperature.

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5
Q

What is the universal gas law?

A

It allows the calculation of how the volume will change as pressure and temperature changes. Pressure x volume = gas constant x temperature (K).

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6
Q

What is partial pressure?

A

In a mixture of gases, molecules of each type behave independently. So each gas exerts its own pressure, which is a portion of the total pressure - a partial pressure.

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7
Q

How is partial pressure calculated?

A

As a fraction of the total pressure as the volume fraction of the gas in the mixture.

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8
Q

What is vapour pressure?

A

In biological systems, gas mixtures are always in contact with water. So gas molecules dissove, and water molecules evaporate, and then exert their own partial pressure. This partial pressure is the vapour pressure.

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9
Q

What is the saturated vapour pressure?

A

When the rate of molecules entering and leaving water at the same time is equal, this is the saturated vapour pressure. When gases enter our body, they are completely saturated with water vapour.

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10
Q

Why do gases in the body have to be saturated with water?

A

So they don’t dry out the lungs.

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11
Q

What is gas tension?

A

Gas tension in liquids indicate how readily the gas will leave the liquid. At equilibrium, tension = partial pressure.

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12
Q

What is the content of gas in a liquid?

A

The amount of gas that enters a liquid to establish a particular tension that is determined by solubility.

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13
Q

What does the content of gas in a liquid depend on?

A

It’s solubility, content = solubility x tension.

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14
Q

How can the content of gas in a liquid be calculated when the gas reacts with a component of the liquid?

A

The reaction must firstly be complete. Total content = reacted gas + dissolved gas.

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15
Q

What is the total oxygen gas content in blood?

A

8.93 mmol/L.

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16
Q

How is the oxygen content in blood calculated? (Include values).

A

Total = oxygen bound to haemoglobin + oxygen dissolved in plasma = 8.8 + 0.13 = 8.93 mmol/L.

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17
Q

What is the tidal volume of the lung?

A

The lung volume that represents the amount of air that is displaced between normal inspiration and expiration, when extra effort is not applied.

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18
Q

What is respiratory rate/ pulmonary ventilation rate?

A

The number of breaths taken in a set time, usually 60 seconds.

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19
Q

What are the two circulations of the lungs?

A

Pulmonary and bronchial.

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20
Q

What is the bronchial circulation part of?

A

The systemic circulation.

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21
Q

What is the function of the bronchial circulation?

A

Meets the metabolic needs of the lungs.

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22
Q

What is the function of the pulmonary circulation?

A

Blood supply to the alveoli for gas exchange.

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23
Q

How can the pulmonary circulation work at a low pressure whilst still accepting the entire cardiac output?

A

It has short, wide vessels, lots of capillaries that are joined in parallel and arterioles with relatively little smooth muscle.

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24
Q

Why do ventilation and perfusion of alveoli need to be matched?

A

For efficient oxygenation.

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25
How is ventilation matched with perfusion?
By diverting blood from alveoli that are not well ventilated. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction - alveolar hypoxia results in vasoconstriction of pulmonary vessels, and the increased resistance means less flow to the poorly ventilated areas and greater flow to well-ventilated areas.
26
What is a complication of chronic hypoxic vasoconstriction?
Right ventricular failure due to high afterload on right ventricle from the chronic increase in resistance, this leads to its failure.
27
What is the upper respiratory tract?
The parts of the respiratory system lying outside of the thorax. This includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx.
28
What is the lower respiratory tract?
The parts of the respiratory system lying inside the thorax. This includes the trachea, main/ pulmonary bronchi, lobar bronchi (three on right, two on left), segmental bronchi, subsegmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar.
29
How do bronchi and bronchioles differ?
Bronchi have cartilage in their walls, bronchioles don't. Bronchioles have more smooth muscle than bronchi.
30
How many terminal bronchioles are there?
Approximately 200000.
31
How many alveoli are there?
Approximately 300000000.
32
What is the general role of the lungs?
To get air to one side and blood to the other of a very thin membrane with a large surface area.
33
How are trachea and bronchi held open?
With cartilaginous rings. This provides a path for air to travel to the alveoli.
34
What are the two cell types and their functions in the alveoli?
Type I cells, simple squamous epithelia for diffusion. | Type II cells, produce surfactant to reduce the surface tension of the alveoli.
35
What are the parts of the nose structure?
External nose and nasal cavity - divided into right and left cavities by the nasal septum.
36
What are the functions of the nose?
Smelling, respiration, filtration of dust, humidification of inspired air, and reception and elimination of secretions from paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal ducts.
37
Where is the peripheral organ of smell?
In the olfactory area of the nose.
38
What happens to air passing over the respiratory area of the nose?
It is warmed and moistened before it passes through to the lungs.
39
How do the conchae of the nose sit?
Superior, middle and inferior nasal conchae curve inferiomedially, hanging from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
40
What are nasal conchae/ terbinates?
Scroll-like structures that offer a vast surface area for heat exchange.
41
Which nasal conchae is the longest and broadest?
The inferior concha.
42
What bone forms the inferior concha?
An independent bone.
43
What bone forms the middle and superior conchae?
Ethmoid bone, from the medial processes.
44
What divides the nasal cavity into five passage?
A recess/ nasal meatus underneath the terbinates.
45
What are paranasal sinuses?
Air-filled extensions of the respiratory part of the nasal cavity into cranial bones.
46
What are the paranasal sinuses, and how are they names?
Frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxilla - named according to the bones in which they are located.
47
Where are the right and left frontal sinuses?
Between the outer and inner tables of the frontal bones, posterior to the superciliary arches and the root of the nose.
48
When do the frontal sinuses become detectable?
From age 7.
49
What do the frontal sinuses drain through and to where?
The frontonasal duct into the ethmoidal infundibulum then into the semilunar hiatus of the middle nasal recess.
50
What are the ethmoidal cells?
Small invaginations of the mucous membrane of the middle and superior nasal recesses into the ethmoid bone.
51
When do the ethmoidal sinuses become visible on plain radiographs?
Before 2 years of age.
52
Where do anterior ethmoidal cells drain?
Directly or indirectly into the middle nasal recess through the ethmoidal infundibulum.
53
Where do middle ethmoidal cells open?
Directly into the middle nasal recess.
54
Where do posterior ethmoidal cells open?
Directly into the superior nasal recess.
55
Where are the sphenoidal sinuses located?
In the body of the sphenoid, they may extend into the wings of the bone.
56
What is the structure of the sphenoid?
A fragile body and thin plates of bone separating the sinuses from sinuses important structures - like optic nerves and chiasm, pituitary gland, internal carotid arteries.
57
Where do the sphenoid sinuses drain?
Directly into sphenoethmoidal recess.
58
What are the largest paranasal sinuses?
The maxillary sinuses.
59
How do the maxillary sinuses drain?
By one or more openings, maxillary ostium, into the middle nasal recess by way of the semilunar hiatus.
60
What is the pharynx?
The superior, expanded aprt of the alimentary system.
61
What is the location of the pharynx?
Posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and extends inferiorly past the larynx.
62
Where does the pharynx extend from and to?
From the cranial base to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage anteriorly and the inferior border of C6 vertebra posteriorly.
63
How wide is the pharynx at its widest?
5cm.
64
Where is the pharynx at its widest?
Opposite the hyoid.
65
How wide is the pharynx at its narrowest?
1.5cm.
66
Where is the pharynx at its narrowest?
At its inferior end, where it is continuous with the oesophagus.
67
What are the three parts of the pharynx?
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
68
Where is the nasopharynx portion of the pharynx?
Posterior to the nose adn superior to the soft palate.
69
What is the function of the nasopharynx?
Respiratory function, it is the posterior extension of the nasal cavities.
70
What is notable about the superior part of the nasopharynx?
It has lymphoid tissue that forms a tonsillar ring which aggregates to form tonsils.
71
What is the location of the oropharynx?
Posterior to the mouth.
72
Where for the oropharynx extend to and from?
From the soft plate to the superior border of the epiglottis.
73
What is the function of the oropharynx?
Digestive function, involved in swallowing.
74
What is the location fo the laryngopharynx?
Posterior to the larynx.
75
Where does the laryngopharynx go from and to?
Ends from the superior border of the epiglottis to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage becomes continuous with the oesophagus.
76
What does the larynx connect?
The inferior oropharynx to the trachea.
77
What does the larynx contain?
The complex organ of sound production - voice box.
78
Where does the larynx extend from?
Laryngeal inlet - through which it communicates with the laryngopharynx to the level of the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage.
79
What is the larynx's most vital function and how does it achieve this?
Guard the air passages, especially during swallowing when it serves as the sphincter/ valve of the lower respiratory tract, thus maintaining the airway.
80
What does the voice box consist of?
Nine cartilages, connected by membranes and ligaments containing the vocal folds.
81
What is the tympanic cavity?
The cavity of the middle ear, a narrow air-filled chamber in the petrous part of the temporal bone.
82
What is the tympanic cavity connected with?
Nasopharynx anteromedially by the Eustachian tube. Mastoid cells posterosuperiorly by mastoid antrum.
83
Where are mucous and serous membranes found in the respiratory system?
Mucous lines the conducting portion of the respiratory tract. Serous line the pleural sacs that envelop each lung.
84
Which areas of the respiratory system are lined by pseudostratified ciliated epithelium with goblet cells?
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/ secondary bronchi.
85
Which areas of the respiratory system are lined by simple columnar ciliated epithelium with Clara cells but no goblet cells?
Bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles.
86
Which areas of the respiratory system are lined by simple columnar epithelium with Clara cells and sparsely scattered cilia?
Respiratory bronchioles, and alveolar ducts.
87
Which areas of the respiratory system are lined by simple squamous epithelium?
Alveoli.
88
What is the epithelium in non-olfactory regions of the nasal cavity?
Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium.
89
How is over-drying prevented in the non-olfactory regions in the nasal cavity?
Venous plexuses swell every 20-30 minutes to alternate air flow from side to side.
90
How is air in the non-olfactory region of the nasal cavity kept warm?
Arterial blood flow warms inspired air.
91
How are the non-olfactory region of the nasal cavity kept open?
Held open by surrounding cartilage or bone.
92
What is the epithelium in the olfactory regions of the nasal cavity?
Particularly thick pseudostratified epithelium.
93
Where is the olfactory region of the nasal cavity?
Posterior, superior region of each nasal fossa.
94
Which cells are present in the olfactory region of the nasal cavity?
Olfactory cells - bipolar neurons.
95
What is the role of the Bowman's glands in the olfactory region of the nasal cavity?
Serous glands flush odorants from the epithelial surface.
96
What are the ventricular folds of the larynx lined with?
Pseudostratified epithelium.
97
What gives resonance to the voice?
Ventricles and their folds in the larynx.
98
What are the vocal cords lined by?
Stratified squamous epithelium.
99
What is the purpose of the stratified squamous epithelium lining of the vocal cords?
To stop foreign objects from reaching the lungs, and to build up pressure by closing when coughing.
100
Which epithelium lines the trachea?
Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium.
101
Which respiratory system structure characteristically has C-shaped cartilage to hold it open?
Trachea.
102
How do the primary bronchi differ from the trachea?
Their cartilage rings completely encircle the lumen, not just a C-shape.
103
How do lobar and segmental bronchi differ from primary bronchi?
Their cartilage is crescent shaped, not ring or completely encircling lumen.
104
What is the cartilage like in the bronchus?
Reduced to small islands of cartilage.
105
How are bronchioles kept open?
Surrounding alveoli keep them open, there is no cartilage or surrounding gland.
106
Where are Clara cells?
In smaller bronchioles, interspersed between ciliated cuboidal cells.
107
What do Clara cells secrete?
Surfactant lipoprotein and protein CC16.
108
What is the role of surfactant lipoprotein?
It prevents walls from sticking together in expiration.
109
What is protein CC16 used for clinically?
Marker in bronchoalveolar damage or leakage across the air-blood barrier. If lowered, lung disease. If raised, leakage across barrier.
110
How is drowning in mucus avoided in narrow airways like terminal bronchiole?
There is an absence of goblet cells.
111
What distinguishes bronchi from bronchioles?
Presence or lack of cartilage, glands, and differing diameters.
112
Distinguish between terminal, respiratory, and alveolar bronchioles according to alveolar opening.
Terminal bronchioles have no alveolar openings, respiratory bronchiole walls open onto some alveoli, alveolar duct walls have openings everywhere onto alveoli.
113
What is the difference between an alveolus and alveolar space?
An alveolus is a single alveoli, the sac is a composite air space onto which many alveoli open.
114
How are alveoli supported?
By a basketwork of elastic and reticular fibres.
115
What are type I pneumocytes?
Simple squamous that cover 90% of the surface area of alveoli and permit gas exchange with capillaries.
116
What are type II pneumocytes?
Simple cuboidal cells that cover 10% of the surface area of alveoli and produce surfactant.
117
Why do macrophages line alveolar surfaces?
To phagocytose particles.
118
When do alveoli finish developing?
Up to the age of 8.
119
How many alveoli do people have/
Approximately 300,000,000.
120
How do alveoli open into respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts or another alveolus?
Via an alveolar pore.

12. Respiratory (10 decks)

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