1. Overview of A&P

Question 1

Proportion of total phenotypic (observable characteristics) variance attributed to genetic variation….An organism’s genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism’s phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment

Answer 1

heritability

Question 2

Genetic changes that occur after conception and cannot be passed to next generation

Answer 2

somatic changes

Question 3

Which one affects every cell in the body? Hereditary mutation or somatic mutation?

Answer 3

Hereditary mutation

Question 4

Genes are located on one of the 27 chromosome pairs found in the nucleus or on long strands of DNA in the mitochondria. T or F

Answer 4

F, 23

Question 5

Does intense long exercise induce inflammatory response and suppress immune functions?

Answer 5

Yes

Question 6

What are the types of pathogens?

Answer 6

bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite

Question 7

what are the routes of transmission for pathogens?

Answer 7

Droplet, airborne, contact, water-borne, food-borne, blood, arthropod-borne

Question 8

Natural killer cells have features of both innate and adaptive immunity. T or F

Answer 8

T

Question 9

Dendritic cells are an important antigen-presenting cell (APC) but what are APC?

Answer 9

Any substance that induces the immune system to produce antibodies against the infection

Question 10

What type of muscle fiber is more likely to be involved when performing resistance exercise?

Answer 10

Fiber type II (white) fast-twitch muscle (most capable of stimulating bone formation)

Question 11

How do too high/low estrogen/steroid/thyroid hormones increase chance of osteoporosis?

Answer 11

1. too low estrogen levels after menopause will speed up the rhythm of bone remodeling
2. too high steroid will slow down osteoblasts (cells that synthesize bone matrix and coordinate mineralization of skeleton) and speed up osteoclasts (cells that degrade bone to initiate normal bone remodelling and mediate bone loss)
3. too high thyroid speed up the bone remodeling process, leading to imbalance between osteoblast and osteoclast

Question 12

How does increase in muscle mass help diabetic patients?

Answer 12

Expand storage capacity for blood sugar in muscle and improve insulin sensitivity

Question 13

Too much sugar/glucose in blood due to lack of insulin

Answer 13

hyperglycaemia

Question 14

Which two lobes does the pituitary gland have?

Answer 14

Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis): produce growth and reproduction hormones eg. thyroid, prolactin

Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis): secrete oxytocin (compassion and social bonding) and vasopressin (control urine output and regulate blood pressure)

Question 15

What does the pituitary gland (hypophysis) do and where is it located?

Answer 15

Aka master endocrine gland. Release hormones that regulate activity of multiple major endocrine organs; it is located below the hypothalamus, which is the primary regulator of pituitary gland, connected by the pituitary stalk

Question 16

What are the three main types of hormones?

Answer 16

1. steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol and are lipophilic eg. testosterone and estrogens
2. peptide hormones: made up of chains of amino acids and are hydrophilic eg. oxytocin and insulin
3. amine hormones: derived from single amino acid eg. melatonin, thyroid, dopamine

Question 17

Acid reflux symptoms, or Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), can increase with the intensity of exercise. And running induced the most reflux. T or F

Answer 17

True

Question 18

What is the function of upper and lower oesophageal sphincter?

Answer 18

Prevent the entry of air and reflux of gastric contents

Question 19

Where does the esophagus start and end?

Answer 19

Start at inferior border of cricoid cartilage (C6) and end at cardiac orifice of stomach (T11)

Question 20

What is the function of the esophagus?

Answer 20

Transport food from pharynx to stomach

Question 21

Abdomen is divided into which four quadrants?

Answer 21

right upper, left upper, right lower and left lower quadrant

Question 22

What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) include?

Answer 22

Autonomic division regulates internal environment, carries information from the CNS to organs, blood vessels and glands

Somatic division carries information to the CNS from the senses and from the CNS to the skeletal muscles

Question 23

What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) include?

Answer 23

Brain and spinal cord

Question 24

What are the basic senses of the nervous system?

Answer 24

Sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste

Question 25

The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism

Answer 25

cell

Question 26

A material made up of specialized cells to perform a unique function in the body of multicellular organisms

Answer 26

tissue

Question 27

A type of thin, continuous, protective cell that lines the surface of body found on skin, blood vessel, urinary tract and organs

Answer 27

epithelial cell

Question 28

What features does a smooth muscle cell have?

Answer 28

1. spindled-shaped and have single elongated nuclei 2. contain thin (actin) and thick (myosin) contractile filaments 3. located in walls of hollow visceral organs (incl. stomach, small and large bowel, rectum, gall bladder and gladder), except heart

Question 29

Entire content within cell membrane

Answer 29

cytoplasm

Question 30

Gel-like fluid that acts as a medium for chemical reaction and other organelles to operate within e.g. cell expansion/growth/replication protein synthesis

Answer 30

cytosol

Question 31

A type of organelle that is made of RNA molecules and proteins, forming a factory for protein synthesis by translating encoded messages from mRNA molecules to synthesize proteins from amino acid

Answer 31

ribosome

Question 32

A semi-permeable wall to allow passage of nucleic acid and protein, separating chromosomes from the rest of the cell

Answer 32

nuclear membrane

Question 33

The master control of the cell, containing genes, collections of DNA (arranged in chromosomes, containing blueprint specific allowing for replication of cells)

Answer 33

nucleus

Question 34

An area within the nucleus not enclosed by a membrane but is just an accumulation of RNA and proteins

Answer 34

nucleolus

Question 35

a thin semi-permeable membrane consisting of a lipid bilayer and associated proteins, separating and protecting the intracellular environment from the extracellular space

Answer 35

cell membrane

Question 36

What are phospholipids composed of?

Answer 36

A hydrophilic phosphate group and two hydrophobic fatty acid chains, making up the fundamental structural element in the plasma membrane

Question 37

What are the other main organelles?

Answer 37

Endoplasmic reticulum: transportation system for protein targetted for outside use Golgi apparatus: receive protein from ER, further process and sort for transport Lysosomes: digestive enzyme to digest macromolecules, cell membrane repair, response against foreign substances Mitochondria: generate the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Perioxisomes: help break down long chain fatty acid aka "lipid catabolism" Microfilaments: aka actin filament to form part of cytoskeleton, extending from nucleus to cell membrane Microtubules: form cytoskeleton, provide platform for intracellular cell division

Question 38

What is the musculoskeletal system consisted of?

Answer 38

Muscle (600+): an organ composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers, mostly attached by tendons to bones of the skeleton, categorized into skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles Tendon (>1000): fibrous connective tissue which attaches muscle to bone, capable of resisting high tensile forces while transmitting forces from muscle to bone Cartilage: a flexible connective tissue that keeps joint motion fluid by coating the surfaces of the bones in our joints and by cushioning bones against impact Bones (206): hard, dense, calcified tissue that forms the skeleton of most vertebrates. Main functions include support your body, protect organs and tissues, store calcium and fat and produce blood cells Joints (300): The area where two bones are attached for the purpose of permitting body parts to move, usually formed of fibrous connective tissue and cartilage Ligaments (>900): bands of tough, elastic connective tissue that surround a joint to give support and limit the joint's movement Joint capsule: a sac-like envelope that surrounds bones of a synovial joint and secretes synovial fluid to lubricate and nourish the joint while acting as a shock absorber Fascia: a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, beneath the skin that attaches to, stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs Bursa: fluid-filled sacs located around a joint that cushion bones when muscles, tendons, or skin rub against the bone, help reducing friction Meniscus: C-shaped piece of tough, rubbery cartilage that acts as a shock absorber between your shinbone and thighbone

Question 39

Where is the gastro-oesophageal junction situated?

Answer 39

Left of T11 vertebra