1. Philosophy of Science

Question 1

Who notably said that some words we use are indefinable, such as ‘game’ and ‘science’?

Answer 1

Ludwig Wittgenstein

Question 2

What were the general beliefs of the Logical Positivists (Vienna Circle)?

Answer 2

Very impressed by science and wanted to see further advancements so wished to draw a line between science and other enquiries (e.g. religion and metaphysical philosophy).

Question 3

According to Logical Positivists, what makes a statement scientifically valid and meaningful?

Answer 3

When it is verifiable by observation.

Question 4

Outline Karl Popper’s argument in refute of Logical Positivism? When did he make this?

Answer 4

Scientific theories cannot be conclusively verified by evidence.

1930s

Question 5

Why did Karl Popper say scientific theories cannot be conclusively verified by experience?

Answer 5

• Probability of truth of scientific theories is always 0. Can only do finite tests, compared to infinite cases, so probably tends to 0.
• One contrary observation destroys a theory, therefore verifications tell us nothing in practice.

Question 6

What counter arguments are there to Karl Popper’s views of scientific verification?

Answer 6

Very few theories avoid refutation, especially while the science surrounding it develops (e.g. Newton’s laws couldn’t explain Mercury’s behaviour until Einstein’s additions)

Question 7

What is the difference between induction and deduction?

Answer 7

Induction = making broad generalisations/assumptions from specific observations
Deduction = starting with generalisations or hypotheses then deducing consequences and testing them.

Question 8

What were Whewell’s Ideas on verifying deep historical science?

Answer 8

If a theory explains and unites previously disparate facts or fields then we’re probably ‘on to something’.

• AKA a theory in deep science usually unites several ‘unrelated facts’ which now work to somewhat verify this theory.

Question 9

What is regarded as the foundational text of modern geology?

Answer 9

James Hutton’s ‘Theory of the earth’

Question 10

Who came up with a theory on verifying ideas to do with deep historical science?

Answer 10

William Whewell

Question 11

When was William Whewell alive?

Answer 11

Early to mid 1800s

Question 12

Who was ‘Darwin’s philosopher’?

Answer 12

Whewell