1) The Universe, Creation and the Place of Human Beings

Question 1

1.1 Non religious views - origin of the universe

Answer 1

Steady State theory - proposed that the universe has no beginning or end and essentially unchanging. Matter is being continuously created at the same rate that old ones become unobservable
Big Bang theory - the universe started at a single point that exploded and is now expanding

Question 2

1.1 Two views of Genesis 1 and 2

Answer 2

-two separate myths with similar meaning
-one continuous story

Question 3

1.1 What happened in Genesis 1?

Answer 3

God created the earth:
-‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.’
-‘God said, ‘Let there be light’ and ‘there was light’

Question 4

1.1 What happened in Genesis 2?

Answer 4

Creation of Adam and Eve:
Adam
-‘the Lord God formed Man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.’
Eve
-‘the rib which the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman and brought her to the man’

Question 5

1.1 The uniqueness of humanity

Answer 5

God made humans imago dei (in the image of God).
-All Christians accept that this refers to the idea that humans were made to ‘resemble’ God mentally, morally, and socially

Question 6

1.1 Catholic view of imago dei

Answer 6

To describe the unique relationship between God and humans.
-It singles out humans as we are the only part of creation made imago dei
-‘Let us make mankind’ in our image’ (Genesis 1)

Question 7

1.1 Stewardship

Answer 7

The belief that God gave human beings a special responsibility in creation to cultivate, guard and use it wisely.

Question 8

1.1 Bible quotes on stewardship

Answer 8

-‘God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it’ (Genesis 2:15)
-God also gave man the responsibility of naming all the living things
-‘The earth is the Lord’s, and everything in it, the world and all who live it’ (Psalm)

Question 9

1.1 Other evidences of stewardship

Answer 9

-Jesus taught kindness to the weak - animals are weak compared to us so we should be kind
-St Anthony Padua - preached to fish; St Francis of Assisi (13th century) preached to birds. - Animals and humans are equal, as we are all God’s creations
-Peter Singer (Australian philosopher) - ‘in suffering the animals are our equals’ - animals have sufficient consciousness and self-awareness to be of moral consideration

Question 10

1.1 Dominion

Answer 10

To rule over nature and that humans are in charge of the world on behalf of God.

Question 11

1.1 Evidences of dominion

Answer 11

-‘Fill the earth and subdue it’ (Genesis 1)
-God gave humanity the right to have power over all other living beings
-humancentric theology - all nature is judged in relation to its use for us

Question 12

1.1 Examples of animal rights

Answer 12

-No experiments on animals.
-No breeding and killing animals for food or clothes or medicine.
-No use of animals for hard labour.
-No selective breeding for any reason other than the benefit of the animal.
-No zoos or use of animals in entertainment.

-The Animal Welfare Act 2006

Question 13

1.1 The Animal Welfare Act 2006

Answer 13

The Animal Welfare Act 2006 - principal law of animal welfare in the UK
-Owners and keepers have a duty of care to their animals and must make sure they meet their needs for suitable environment, diet, protection, etc.
-If not - Can be sent to prison for up to 6 months, banned from owning animals, face unlimited fine

Question 14

1.1 Rebuttal to the argument of dominion

Answer 14

-God told Noah to bring out every living creature in the Ark so they procreate and ‘be fruitful’ (Genesis 8)
-God also saved his other creations
-commanded Noah to save them - as a steward

Question 15

1.2 Human nature: the body

Answer 15

Physical part of a human being. Only visible part of man that can be seen. Only part of man that dies.

Question 16

1.2 Evidence of the body as the only part of man that dies

Answer 16

-‘Our earthly bodies which die and decay are different from the bodies we shall have when we come back to life again, for they will never die’ (1 Corinthians)

Question 17

1.2 Hindu view on the body/ soul

Answer 17

-when a person dies the atman (soul) is reincarnated into a new body on the basis of past karma
-Good karma (gained from morally good voluntary actions) leads to a positive rebirth - the best form - Brahmin (priestly) caste - most likely that you would go on to gain good karma in your next existence
-bad karma can lead to a negative reincarnation (animal as it is hard to gain good karma)

-Process of rebirth - samsara

Question 18

1.2 Human nature: the soul

Answer 18

A non-physical part of a human being that lives on after the death of the physical body.

Question 19

1.2 Evidences of the how the soul is outside of the body

Answer 19

-‘the Lord God formed Man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.’
-‘Before I formed you in the womb I knew you’ (Jeremiah 1:5)

Question 20

1.2 Secular differing views about the soul

Answer 20

-Physicalism - the only existing material is the physical. Richard Dawkins, a materialist biologist, thinks there is no demonstrable, testable evidence for the soul.
-Aristotle - The soul is not eternal but instead that which ‘animates’ the body. All things have souls and they die at death.
-Pantheism - ultimate reality and the universe (everything) is God. The ‘world soul’ is existent in all things and represents God’s creative action in creation. We are all instance of this world soul, hoping for total absorption into God at death, back into the elements.

Question 21

1.2 Challenges to belief in the Soul

Answer 21

-interactionism - how do soul and body interact? How can the non physical cause physical action?
-sciences - tells us about the workings of the brain. Psychologists can predict and analyse how thought influences behaviour. Concept of a separate ‘soul’ is redundant
-category mistakes - Gilbert Ryle (English philosopher) argues the belief in the soul is a ‘catergory mistake’. The soul is not separate from the mind and body, but refers to all of them.

Question 22

1.2 Human nature: spirit

Answer 22

Our innermost part which possesses God-consciousness that enables us to contact and communicate with God.

Question 23

1.2 The natures of humanity

Answer 23

-Morality
-Free will
-Rationality
-Creative
-Fallen

Question 24

1.2 Human nature: morality

Answer 24

-The idea of having a sense of right and wrong
Christian ethics emphasises doing right and wrong - gives humanity laws and commandments, sent Jesus to teach God’s will

Question 25

1.3 Human nature: free will

Answer 25

God gave humans free will. Without it, we would not be moral, as we wouldn't have the conscious choice to act in a moral way --Adam and Eve -They were tempted by the serpent and ate the forbidden fruit -Humans have the ability and responsibility to choose --'Do not use your freedom to indulge the flesh; rather, serve one another humbly in love' (Galatians)

Question 26

1.2 Human nature: rationality

Answer 26

-God made humans to be able to reason and make decisions or judgements based on reason. -'For the Lord gives wisdom, from his mouth came knowledge and understanding' (Proverbs 2:6)

Question 27

1.2 Human nature: creative

Answer 27

--Idea that God created humans with ability to be creative -'Be fruitful and multiply' (Genesis) - human nature and the main purpose for humans -Made in God's image -God is the original creator, and our nature of creativity reflects His

Question 28

1.2 Human nature: fallen

Answer 28

--Idea that all humans are born with a tendency to sin as a result of original sin -Humans are weakened, subject to ignorance, suffering death and the incline of sin -Baptism - needed to remove original sin but still doesn't remove the inclination to sin as it is still in human nature -'Watch and pray so that you will not fall into temptation. The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak.' (Matthew 26:41)

Question 29

1.2 The excuse of sin in human nature

Answer 29

Thomas Aquinas (philosopher in the 13th century) --Believed that human nature is essentially good and that all humans are oriented towards perfection and good acts -wrong acts are carried out due to mistaking a wrong act for a right act -a wrong act is due to a fault in reasoning of the individual -'Whatever man desires, he desires it under the aspect of God'

Question 30

1.2 Debating the existence of human nature

Answer 30

Jean Paul Satre - Famous existentialist --There is no human nature. It is a concept and illusion invented by authority figures to abuse our freedom --People should reject the notion of God and believe that humans are placed on earth with no purpose or meaning -this gives an individual the freedom to do whatever they want --'existence precedes essence' -for the individual to decide who they are after being born, instead of being born into something

Question 31

1.3 Sin

Answer 31

An immoral act considered to be a transgression against divine law. Fatal flaw - hamartia

Question 32

1.3 Fundamentalist Christians views on sin

Answer 32

Believe that the Bible is inerrant (incapable of being wrong) so everything that the Bible says is a sin is and should be avoided. -e.g. opposed to homosexuality as in Leviticus, it is described as an 'abomination'

Question 33

1.3 Liberal Christian views on sin

Answer 33

The sins mentioned in the Bible are reflections of the values of another age -they don't come from God but from human writers of the Bible

Question 34

1.3 Majority of Christians view on sin

Answer 34

-sin separates humans from God, bringing lasting punishment -God gave humans free will so it is up to humans to decide for themselves how to behave (follow 10 commandments, Sermon on the Mount) -only God can rectify the problem of humans being full of sin - he offered salvation through the sacrifice of Christ.

Question 35

1.3 Roman Catholics on 2 types of sin

Answer 35

--Venial sins - not as serious (e.g. lying) -People can confess privately to God/ to a priest --Mortal sins - serious affect a person's relationship with God (e.g. murder) -RCC teaches this should be confessed to a priest -as they speak with the authority of Christ -to be able to help the person to receive God's forgiveness

Question 36

1.3 Presentation of original sin

Answer 36

Many Christians see the story of Adam and Eve as symbolic of the meaning of sin - God told them not to eat it but they still did Serpent - evil/ temptation Eating the fruit - being no longer conscious of God's love, and start caring only about themselves The 'Fall' - they are cast out and life is hard

Question 37

1.3 Views on original sin

Answer 37

Common view - it is a moral stain passed down the generations from Adam and Eve's first sin -People are born with sin and infant baptism cleanses us of original sin Orthodox Christians - Adam and Eve's fall led to mortality. There is no sin passed down, but we are now mortal. -a struggle to be good. We are not to blame for Adam's sin but we suffer the consequences. Others - don't believe there was ever an Adam and Eve. They are just symbols of humans being confronted by the choice of good and evil. -'original sin' is the negative influence in the world that was built over the ages. It works on people from birth and turns them away from good.

Question 38

1.3 Selfishness

Answer 38

Putting one's needs ahead of others, often when their needs are greater. Christianity teaches this is wrong as people should have an active concern for others

Question 39

1.3 Evidences of selflessness

Answer 39

-The Golden rule 'Love thy neighbor as yourself' --Parable of the Good Samaritan -A man beaten up by robbers and was left half dead on the road -The priest and the Levite walked past him but a passing Samaritan washed and binded the injured man -Lead him to an inn and paid for him -Jesus said 'go and do likewise'

Question 40

1.3 Views on selfishness

Answer 40

Humanism - rejects divine beings and focus on humans to create their humanity and promote individual and collective well being. Thomas Hobbes - the most basic law of nature is to try and ensure our own survival and we are entitled to use others to achieve that Theory of evolution - survival of the fittest. People are naturally predisposed to selfish behavior.

Question 41

1.3 Greed

Answer 41

The desire to have more than is fair. Can relate to resources but also concepts (like status)

Question 42

1.3 Evidences on greed

Answer 42

--Bible warns against making money The parable of the dishonest manager-'No one can serve two masters... You cannot serve both God and money.' --Jesus showed concern for the poor and was critical of the rich -Jesus and the rich young man - came to Jesus and asked how to inherit eternal life -Jesus told him, 'sell all you have and give it to the poor'. -'it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.'

Question 43

1.3 Views on greed

Answer 43

-Roman Catholic - greed is one of the seven deadly sins as it involves worshipping money instead of God -Capitalist - a positive aspect to greed as it brings an incentive to work hard and do better

Question 44

1.3 Ignorance

Answer 44

Not knowing or understanding the difference between right and wrong

Question 45

1.3 Views that ignorance is not a sin

Answer 45

--We are too limited to know right and wrong. We are not omniscient or omnibenevolent, like God -on the cross, Jesus said 'father forgive them for they know not what they do' --Adam and Eve -they didn't know good and evil and so ate the fruit. It is not their fault - 'you will be like God, knowing good and evil.' --Aquinas -Although conscience is God-given, it is not infallible and one can make mistakes --Humanists -People should learn right and wrong from parents and society. Not entirely a person's fault if they were brought up wrong

Question 46

1.3 Views that ignorance is a sin

Answer 46

-Ignorance is a willingly accepted obstacle based on a lack of desire to put in the effort of knowing God -knowledge and wisdom are some of the seven gifts from the Holy Spirit in Isiah II -the gifts are received by accepting or receiving Jesus Christ and being baptised in His name. Jesus said to His disciples, 'Receive the Holy Spirit' (John)

Question 47

1.4 Free will

Answer 47

The notion that humans are in control and have agency over their actions and are morally responsible for their choices.

Question 48

1.4 Evidences of free will

Answer 48

-'For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.' (John 3:16) -Jesus told the fishermen Peter and Andrew: 'Come, follow me, ' Jesus said, 'and I will make you fishers of men.' --Pelagius - British theologian -Believed God's gift of free will meant each human could earn a place in heaven. Life is not predestined.

Question 49

1.4 Determinism

Answer 49

Philosophical position that claims that all human actions are influenced by prior causes and are inevitable.

Question 50

1.4 Types of determinism

Answer 50

-Hard determinism - we are irresponsible for all actions -Soft determinism - individuals have some conscious control over their thoughts and behaviours if they choose to exercise this. Biological determinism - idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes. Environmental determinism - the view that behaviour is determined or caused by forces outside the individual.

Question 51

1.4 Predestination

Answer 51

Theological position that claims that God has already determined who will enter heaven (the elect) and who will enter hell (reprobate). This is reflected in the choices one makes during life which God already knew they'd do.

Question 52

1.4 Evidences on predestination

Answer 52

-'Before I formed you in the womb I knew you' (Jeremiah 1:5) --John Calvin - 16th century philosopher -'God determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every man. Not all are created on equal terms' --Saint Augustine - 4th century theologian -Believed we had free will but God chooses who he wants to be saved, and gives faith to those he chooses, therefore predestinating them.

Question 53

1.4 Christian reasons of the existence of free will

Answer 53

--God gave free will - Adam and Eve --Parable of the rich man and Lazarus -The rich man didn't help Lazarus (the beggar) and went to hell --God is just a spectator -Observes, but doesn't cause them

Question 54

1.4 Secular reasons of the existence of free will

Answer 54

-Existentialism - Existence precedes essence -Justice system -punishing people for something they aren't responsible

Question 55

1.4 Secular reasons that free will doesn't exist

Answer 55

-Determinism -can't control what's around you (upbringing, genes)

Question 56

1.5 Ultimate reality: God the Trinity

Answer 56

-Father, Son and the Holy Spirit -God is one but is also experienced as three separate people. They exist in perfect harmony as one God. -a monotheistic religion

Question 57

1.5 Role of the Trinity

Answer 57

--God the Father - creates, nurtures life, and creates a plan. --God the Son - helps Christians understand how God makes his love known in the world by spreading his teachings. He implements the plan. -Emmanuel, meaning 'God with us' - another name for Jesus --The Holy Spirit - helps Christians understand that God is always present in the world and dwells in the hearts of God's people

Question 58

1.5 Unitarian view on the Trinity

Answer 58

God is one being and that Jesus was in some way 'a son' of God, but not literally God -believe Jesus was sent to earth as a savior but still sees him as a human who was inspired by God.

Question 59

1.5 Jehovah's witness view on the Trinity

Answer 59

God is a single being and His name is Jehovah. No one is equal to God. Jesus was created by Jehovah and is his son, but not God. -as he isn't ethereal and has a beginning -the Holy Spirit is separate from God. It is Jehovah's force, through which he acts.

Question 60

1.5 Western and Eastern church views on the Trinity

Answer 60

Western Church - The spirit comes from both God the Father and God the son Eastern Orthodox Church - God the Father is the source of all things

Question 61

1.5 Polytheism

Answer 61

Belief that there are multiple Gods and deities -Mormonism - Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, believed in "the plurality of Gods", God the Father, Son and Holy Spirit constitute three distinct personages and three Gods -Ancient Greek religion - 12 Olympians - Apollo, Zeus, Hera, with different abilities and characters

Question 62

1.5 Reasons people believe in polytheism

Answer 62

-in monotheism, there is a paradox that a single omnipotent entity created everything, but who created them? -Problem of evil - many gods mean they are restricted in their abilities but have a defined character as well. In monotheistic religions, one entity can cause great suffering but proclaim to love everyone. -Monotheism encourages religious wars, ethnic cleansing, oppression of minorities - 10 commandments - 'You shall have no other gods before me'

Question 63

1.5 The nature of God

Answer 63

-Eternal (without beginning or end) -Transcendent (outside time) -Omniscient (knows everything) -Immanent (involved with the world) -Benevolent (love and kindness towards human) -Omnipotent (all powerful) -Judgmental (his perfect nature ensures he is a fair and righteous judge)

Question 64

1.5 Karl Barth on the nature of God

Answer 64

-Swiss theologian One of the most significant features of God is he is 'wholly other' than man -we can never really understand God -doing so would be confining Him in our finiteness

Question 65

1.6 Agnostic

Answer 65

A person who holds the view that any ultimate reality is unknown and probably unknowable.

Question 66

1.6 Reasons to be agnostic

Answer 66

-The Bible is full of errors, contradictions and evil commandments - Problem of Evil - Christianity's main source of authority is written by humans -Big Bang theory is not a fact, perhaps ultimate reality will never be proven

Question 67

1.6 Reasons for theism

Answer 67

-Inevitability of faith - everyone has to believe in something -Gaps in science -Power to explain mysteries in life -Real places and people in religious texts -The real effects of the ethics in believer's lives -Evidence of miracles -Cultural inheritance

Question 68

1.6 The Cosmological argument

Answer 68

-All effects have a cause and all causes are external to the motion as nothing can be its own cause -Therefore, the universe must have an external cause -This cause must be outside of space and time, and be powerful -God qualifies for the description of outside space and time and all power -God must exist which is the cause of the universe

Question 69

1.6 3 weaknesses of the Cosmological argument

Answer 69

--Appealing to God brings more questions than answers - Who created God? --The problem of evil - If God is the cause of the universe, why would he permit evil in the world? --If an explanation cannot be understood by anyone who is receiving it then it is not an explanation - God is beyond our understanding, so cannot function as an explanation

Question 70

1.6 The Design argument

Answer 70

The world is designed so well that it points to a designer who created it.

Question 71

1.6 Arguments against the Design argument

Answer 71

-Complexity does not necessarily mean design. -cannot be assumed that its designer is God. If it were designed by God - Problem of Evil -The theory of evolution - how species develop without reference to a designer God

Question 72

1.6 The Telelogical argument

Answer 72

We observe order and purpose throughout the universe. Order and purpose are not the nature state of things. Instead, it is chaos. -Order and purpose can only be imposed by a thinking, personal mind that is all present and powerful -God is a fulfills this God must exist as the being responsible for the order and purpose in the universe.

Question 73

1.6 2 weaknesses of the telelogical argument

Answer 73

--given infinite time, this universe is inevitable as all combination of matter inevitably arise -God is redundant as a designer --one cannot judge cause from its effects -the design and purpose in the universe will not tell us about the cause of them

Question 74

1.6 Reasons for atheism

Answer 74

-No reliable evidence for God - people should only believe in things which they have good evidence --Occom's Razor - popularized by William of Occam (14th century) - 'Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily' - the simplest answer is the best answer -Atheists can argue since all of creation can be explained by evolution and scientific cosmology. We don't need the existence of another entity called God.

Question 75

1.7 The problem of evil

Answer 75

Evil and suffering in the world would make Christians question God's omnipotence, omnibenevolence and omniscience

Question 76

1.7 The Logical POE

Answer 76

God's omnipotence and benevolence and evil cannot coexist - The Inconsistent Triad

Question 77

1.7 The Evidential POE

Answer 77

The sheer evidence of evil suggests there is not a God - cancer, Hitler, natural disasters

Question 78

1.7 Christian responses to POE

Answer 78

-Free will -God has a plan -Follow Jesus -Life is a test

Question 79

1.7 Christian response to POE - free will

Answer 79

God has given people free will - shown people that they should obey the Ten commandments and follow Jesus' life and teaching -up to humans to decide whether or not they should follow God's instructions Augustine's theodicy -God created the world ex nihilo (out of nothing), he did not create evil, evil is a result of human choice

Question 80

1.7 Christian response to POE - God has a plan

Answer 80

God has a plan for people's lives that they may not understand as he is transcendent -May include evil and suffering but Christians should have faith in the plan

Question 81

1.7 Christian response to POE - follow Jesus

Answer 81

God wants people to follow the example of Jesus and help those who are suffering -He does not want evil and suffering - it is not his fault

Question 82

1.7 Christian response to POE - Life is a test

Answer 82

Life is a test to get into heaven -Evil and suffering gives people a chance to become better -Christianity teaches that if you are good, God will reward them in heaven --John Hick - English philosopher -Evil is for soul-making and necessary for us to grow. We would not have compassion without pain. Judged on the Day of Judgement.

Question 83

1.7 Christian responses to evil and suffering

Answer 83

Praying -God will remove causes of evil and help Christians Helping -Follow Jesus' example in life and help those who are suffering: -Parable of the Sheep and the Goats -Rewarded those who have fed the hungry, clothed the sick

Question 84

1.7 Teachings of evil in the Bible

Answer 84

-Evil influences a person towards evil deeds -People should turn away from evil and temptation -People who do this will get eternal life

Question 85

1.7 Teaching of evil - Evil influences

Answer 85

Serpent in Genesis influenced Eve into eating the apple -'you will be like God, knowing good and evil' -Satan tempted Jesus in the desert to turn stone into bread to prove himself, and to jump off the temple to see if angels would save him - 'You shall not put the Lord your God to the test.'

Question 86

1.7 Teaching of evil - People should avoid temptation

Answer 86

-'The highway of the upright is to depart from evil.' (Proverbs) -The way of good is to turn from Evil. God who sees this will give eternal life.

Question 87

1.7 Teaching of evil - People who avoid temptation will get eternal life

Answer 87

'For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life' (John 3:16)

Question 88

1.1 Non religious views - origin of the universe

Answer 88

Steady State theory - proposed that the universe was infinite or eternal and essentially unchanging.