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Alisha's MCAT Flashcards > Chem-Phys > Flashcards

Chem-Phys Flashcards

1
Q

What is a geminal diol?

A

2 hydroxyls on the same carbon.

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2
Q

What is a vicinal diol?

A

2 hydroxyls on adjacent carbons.

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3
Q

What is the common name for 2-propanol?

A

isopropyl alcohol

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4
Q

What is the common name for ethanol?

A

Ethyl alcohol

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5
Q

What is the suffix and prefix for naming aldehydes?

A

suffix: -al prefix: oxo-

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6
Q

What is the suffix and prefix for naming ketones?

A

suffix: -one prefix: oxo- or keto-

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7
Q

What is the common name for methanal?

A

Formaldehyde

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8
Q

What is the common name for ethanal?

A

Acetaldehyde

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9
Q

What is the common name for propanal?

A

Propionaldehyde

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10
Q

What is the common name for propanone?

A

Acetone

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11
Q

How do you name an ester?

A

Name the alkane group off the of the ester oxygen, and add the suffix -oate.

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12
Q

How do you name an amide?

A

Add the suffix -amide.

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13
Q

How do you name an anhydride from one carboxylic acid?

A

Remove “acid” from the name and add “anhydride”.

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14
Q

√2=

A

1.414

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15
Q

√3=

A

1.732

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16
Q

logA1=

A

0

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17
Q

logAA=

A

1

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18
Q

logA x B=

A

logA + logB

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19
Q

logA/B=

A

logA - logB

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20
Q

logAB=

A

BlogA

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21
Q

log1/A=

A

-logA

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22
Q

What is the conversion between natural logarithms and common logarithms?

A

log x ≈ ln x / 2.303

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23
Q

log 10=

A

1

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24
Q

log (nx 10m) ≈

A

m + 0.n

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25
Q

What is avogadro’s number?

A

NA= 6.02 x 1023

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26
Q

What is Planck’s constant (h)?

A

h = 6.626 x 10-34 J x s

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27
Q

What is the equation for determining the energy of a quantum (energy emitted as electromagnetic radiation from matter in discrete bundles)?

A

E = hf

E = energy of quantum

f = frequency

h = Planck’s constant

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28
Q

What is the equation for the angular momentum of an electron orbiting a hydrogen nucleus?

A

L = nh/2π

L = angular momentum

h= Planck’s constant

n= principal quantum number –> subshell (s=1, p=2, d=3, f=4)

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29
Q

What is the equation for the energy of an electron?

A

E = -RH/n2

E = energy of electron (J)

RH = Rydberg unit of energy = 2.18 x 10-18 J/electron

n = principal quantum number

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30
Q

What is the equation for the energy of an emitted photon?

A

E = hc/λ

E = energy of photon (J)

h = Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 J x s)

c = speed of light = 3 x 108

λ = wavelength (nm)

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31
Q

What is the equation for calculating the change in energy associated with a change in the principal quantum number?

A

E = -RH [1/n12 - 1/nf2]

E = Energy assocaited with jump J

RH = Rydberg unit of energy = 2.18 x 10-18 J/electron

n = principal quantum number

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32
Q

What is the principal quantum number?

A

n –> the larger the integer value of n, the higher the energy level and radius of the electron’s shell

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33
Q

What is the second quantum number?

A

The second quantum number is called the azimuthal (angular momentum) quantum number, and is designated by the letter l

It represents the number of subshells within a given shell –> related to n –> for any value of n, the range of possible values for l is 0 to n-1

l = 0 –> s

l = 1 –> p

l = 2 –> d

l = 3 –> f

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34
Q

What is the formula for the maximum number of electrons within a subshell?

A

max. # of electrons = 4l +2

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35
Q

What is the third quantum number?

A

The third quantum # is the magnetic quantum number (ml) and it specifies the particular orbital within a subshell that an electron is most likely to be found –> related to azimuthal quantum number –> ml = integers between -l and +l, including 0. The # of integers represents the number of orbitals (lines in e- configs.)

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36
Q

What is the fourth quantum #?

A

The 4th quantum # is the spin quantum # (ms) –> can be +1/2 and -1/2.

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37
Q

What is Hund’s rule?

A

Hund’s rule is that within each given subshell, the orbitals are filled such that there is a max. # of half-filled orbitals with parallel spins. Half-filled and fully-filled orbitals have lower energies (more stable) than other states.

Example: Chromium’s e- config. is [Ar]4s13d5 instead of [Ar]4s23d5

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38
Q

What are materials composed of atoms with unpaired electrons considered?

A

Paramagnetic

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39
Q

What are materials composed of atoms with paired electrons considered?

A

Diamagnetic

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40
Q

Calculating IQR?

A

First… # values in data set (n)

to determine Q1 → n x 1/4 = x → (x)(x+1)/2 = Q1

to determine Q3 → n x 3/4 = x → (x)(x+1)/2 = Q3

IQR= Q3 - Q1

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41
Q

How to determine outliers using IQR?

A

If any values in 1.5 x IQR more or less than the mean then it is considered an outlier.

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42
Q

How to calculate standard deviation?

A

Take each data value, and subtract the mean from it and square the difference. After doing this for all of the values, take the sum of the results, and divide it by n-1, and take the sqaure root of that value.

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43
Q

How do you use standard deviation to determine outliers?

A

You can use standard deviation to determine outliers by seeing whether or not the values fall within three standard deviations of the mean.

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44
Q

How do you determine the probability of at least one of two events occuring?

A

The the sum of their initial, individual probabilities, and from this subtract the probability that they will both occur.

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

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45
Q

How do you use a confidence interval?

A

Begin w/ a desired cofidence level (usually 95%) → Find corressponding z or t score → multiply that value by the standard deviation and add and subtract from the mean in order to find the range of the true mean.

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46
Q

How do use a p-value in order to determine if data is significant or not?

A

If the p-value is greater than our significance level, then that means that we fail to reject the null hypothesis, and vice versa.

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47
Q

How are structural isomers similar?

A

Structural isomers (constitutional isomers) have the same molecular formulas.

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48
Q

How do conformational and configurational isomers differ?

A

Conformational isomers differ in a rotation around a single bond, and configurational isomers differ in molecular connectivity (differ with the breakage of bonds).

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49
Q

What is the difference between enantiomers and diastereomers?

A

Enantiomers are non-superimposable mirror images (have the same chiral centers), while diastereomers are still chiral but are not mirror images of eachother because they differ at some (but not all) of their multiple chiral centers.

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50
Q

What is a meso compound?

A

A meso compound is a molecule that contains a line of symmetry. These compounds are the molecular equivalent of a racemic mixture, and contain no optical activity.

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51
Q

What is the formula for specific rotation of plane-polarized light?

A

[α] = αobs/ c x l

αobs = observed rotation

c = concentration in g/ml

l = path length in dm 1 cm = 0.1 dm

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52
Q

What is the unit conversion for 1 N?

A

1 kg • m / s2

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53
Q

What is the unit conversion for 1 J?

A

1 kg • m2 / s2

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54
Q

What is the unit conversion for 1 W?

A

1 kg • m2 / s3

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55
Q

What is 1 eV equal to?

A

1.6 x 10-19 J

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56
Q

What is 1 Angstrom (Å) equal to?

A

10-10 m

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57
Q

How is a scalar calculated from the product of 2 vectors?

A

Scalar: Dot product

|A| x |B|cos θ

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58
Q

How is a vector calculated from the product of two vectors?

A

Vector: Cross product

|A| x |B|sin θ

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59
Q

How do you use RHR?

A
  1. Start by pointing thumb in direction of vector
  2. Extend your fingers in the direction of vector B
  3. The direction your palm points is the direction of the resultant C
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60
Q

What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between two objects?

A

Fg = Gm1m2 / r2

G = 6.67 x 10-11 N • m2/ Kg2

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61
Q

What is the universal gravitational constant?

A

G = 6.67 x 10-11 N • m2/ Kg2

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62
Q

What are Newton’s Three Laws?

A
  1. A body at rest or in motion will remain that way, unless a net force acts upon it
  2. An object of mass m, will accelerate when a vector sum of the forces results in some nonzero force vector
  3. For every action, there is always an equal but opposite reaction
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63
Q

What equation relates mass and weight?

A

Fg = mg

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64
Q

What equations describe one dimensional motion (4)?

A

v = v0 + at

x = v0t + at2/2

v2 = v02 + 2ax

x = vt

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65
Q

What are the parallel and perpendicular components of gravity?

A

Fg(parallel) = mgsinθ

Fg(perpendicular) = mgcosθ

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66
Q

What equation describes circular motion?

A

Fc = mv2/r

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67
Q

How are group A elements defined?

A

Group A elements contain valence electrons in s & p orbitals.

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68
Q

What is one defining characteristic of metals?

A

Luster

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69
Q

What is one defining characteristic of nonmetals?

A

Poor conductors of heat and electricity.

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70
Q

What is one characteristic of metalloids?

A

Good conductivity but brittle.

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71
Q

What is the trend for ionic radius?

A

Ionic radii of anions are larger than the atomic radius of that element, and ionic radii of cations is smaller than the atomic radius.

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72
Q

What is the periodic trend for ionization energy?

A

Ionization energy (energy required to remove an electron) increases from L → R and decreases from top → bottom.

73
Q

What is the periodic trend for electron affinity?

A

Electron affinity increases from L → R, and decreases from top → bottom.

74
Q

What is the periodic trend for electronegativity?

A

Electronegativity increases from L → R, and decreases from top → bottom, first 3 noble gases have no electronegativity.

75
Q

What is the periodic trend for atomic radius?

A

Atomic radius decreases from L → R, and increases from top → bottom.

76
Q

What is the relationship between first and second ionization energy?

A

Second ionization energy will always be higher than first ionization energy.

77
Q

What is the s character of sp, sp2, and sp3 orbitals?

A

sp → 50% s character

sp2 → 33% s character

sp3 → 25% s character

78
Q

What are four elements that have an incomplete octet?

A
  1. He
  2. Li
  3. Be
  4. B
79
Q

What are three elements that have an expanded octet?

A
  1. P
  2. S
  3. Cl
80
Q

What are 5 characteristics of ionic compounds?

A
  1. High melting and boiling points
  2. Solubility of ions in water
  3. Good conductors of heat & electricity
  4. Crystal lattice arrangement
  5. Large electronegativity differences between ions
81
Q

Rank IMFs from strongest to weakest?

A
  1. Hydrogen bonding
  2. Dipole-dipole interactions
  3. London dispersion forces
82
Q

What is the formula and units for kinetic energy?

A

1/2mv2 → J (kg • m2/s2)

83
Q

What is the formula and units for potential energy?

A

PE = mgh (J)

84
Q

What is the formula and units for elastic potential energy?

A

U = 1/2kx2

k= spring constant

x= displacement from EQ

85
Q

What is the formula for total mechanical energy?

A

E = U + K

U = potential energy

K = kinetic energy

86
Q

How do you determine whether forces are conservative?

A

If the net change in energy is 0 regardless of the path taken to get back to the initial position, then the forces are conservative.

ΔE = ΔU + ΔK = 0

87
Q

What is the equation if for the mechanical energy, if the mechanical energy is not conserved?

A

Wnonconservative = ΔE = ΔU + ΔK

88
Q

What are the three methods for calculating work?

A
  1. Area under the curve on a P vs. V graph → P∆V
  2. W = Fdcosθ
  3. W = ∆K

K → kinetic energy

d → magnitude of the displacement

θ → angle between the applied force vector and the displacement vector

89
Q

What is an isobaric process?

A

An isobaric process is where pressure is constant, and the work can be calculated as PΔV.

90
Q

What is an isochoric process?

A

An isochoric process is one where the volume is constant. There is no work done.

91
Q

What is power and how is it calculated?

A

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another and it is calculated with the equation P = W/t = ΔE/t.

92
Q

What is mechanical advantage and how is it calculated?

A

Mechanical advantage is the ratio of magnitudes of the force exerted on an object by a simple machine, to the force actually applied on the simple machine.

Mechanical Advantage = Fout/Fin

93
Q

As the length of an inclined plane increases, what happens to the force requires to move an object the same displacement?

A

Decreases.

94
Q

As the effort decreases in a pulley system, what happens to the effort distance to maintain the same work output?

A

Increases.

95
Q

What is the efficiency of a machine and how is it calculated?

A

Efficiency = Wout/Win = (load)(load distance)/(effort)(effort distance)

96
Q

How do you calculate formal charge?

A

Formal charge = #VE - #NBE - #BE/2

97
Q

What does am amine look like?

A
98
Q

What does an amide look like?

A
99
Q

What does an imine functional group look like?

A
100
Q

What does an imide functional group look like?

A
101
Q

What does an enamine functional group look like?

A
102
Q

What does an enamide functional group look like?

A
103
Q

What is the Zeroth law of thermodynamics?

A

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics conveys the transitive property in thermal equilibrium. When the first object is in thermal equilibrium with the second object, and the second object is in thermal equilibrium with the third object, then the first object is said to be in thermal equilibrium with the third object.

104
Q

What are the equations used to convert between celcius, kelvin, and farenheight?

A

F = 9/5C + 32

K = C + 273

105
Q

What is thermal expansion, and what is the equation for it?

A

Thermal expansion is when a change in temperature of most solids results in a change in their length.

The equation for this:

∆L = αL∆T

∆L= change in length

α= coefficient of linear expansion

L = original length

∆T = change in temperature

106
Q

What is volumetric thermal expansion and what is the equation for it?

A

Volumetric thermal expansion is the property of liquids to also expand as a result of a change in temperature.

The equation for this is:

∆V= βV∆T

∆V= Change in volume

β= Coefficient of linear expansion

V= Original volume

∆T= Change in temperature

107
Q

How are the coefficient of volumetric and the coefficient of linear expansion related?

A

The coefficient of volumetric expansion is equal to three times the coefficient of linear expansion.

β = 3α

108
Q

What is the first law of thermodynamics and what is the equation?

A

The change in the total energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy transformed in the form of heat to the system, minus the amount of energy transferred from the system in the form of work.

∆U = Q - W

∆U = Change in the system’s internal energy

Q = Energy transferred into the system as heat

W = Work done by the system

109
Q

When is the change in internal energy positive and negative, respectively?

A

The change in internal energy is positive when temperature is increasing, and the change in internal energy is negative when temperature is decreasing.

110
Q

When is heat positive and negative, respectively?

A

Heat is a positive value when heat flows into the system, and heat is a negative value when heat flows out of the system.

111
Q

When is work positive and negative, respectively?

A

Work is a positive value when work is done by the system, and it is a negative value when work is done on the system.

112
Q

What are the conversion factors between units of heat?

A

1 Cal = 103 cal = 4184 J

113
Q

What is one calorie?

A

1 calorie (little c) is the amount of heat required to raise 1 g of water one degree Celcius.

114
Q

What are the three methods of heat transfer?

A
  1. Conduction: Direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule through molecular collisions
  2. Convection: Transfer of heat by the physical motion of a fluid over a material
  3. Radiation: Transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves
115
Q

What is the specific heat of a substance?

A

The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise one gram of a substance by one degree Celcius or one unit Kelvin (specific heat of water is 1 cal/g•K).

116
Q

What is the equation that relates the heat gained or lost by an object and the change in termperature of that object?

A

q = mc∆T

q= heat gained or lost

m = mass

c = specific heat

∆T= change in temperature

117
Q

What is the equation for the amount of heat added or lost when there is a phase change?

A

q = mL

q = amount of heat gained or lost from the material

m = mass of the substance

L = heat of transformation or the latent heat of the substance

118
Q

What is an isothermal process, and what does the first law of thermodynamics reduce to during an isothermal process?

A

An isothermal process is one where there is a constant temperature, and therefore no change in internal energy.

Q = W

119
Q

What is an adiabatic process, and what does the first law of thermodynamics reduce to during an adiabatic process?

A

An adiabatic process is one where there is no heat exhange.

Q = 0

∆U = -W

120
Q

What is an isochoric process, and what does the first law of thermodynamics reduce to during an isochoric process?

A

An isochoric process is one where there is no change in volume, and therefore no work accomplished.

W = 0

∆U = Q

121
Q

What is entropy, and what is the equation for it?

A

Entropy is a measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy at a specific temperature.

The equation is:

∆S = Qrev/T

∆S = change in entropy

Qrev = heat gained or lost in a reversible process

T = Temperature in Kelvin

units: J/mol • K

122
Q

What is the relationship between the entropy of a system and its surroundings for any thermodynamic process?

A

The entropy of a system and its surroundings will never decrease, it will either remain zero or increase.

∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings > 0

123
Q

What is the conversion between units of celcius and farenheight?

A

1 °C = 1.8 °F

124
Q

What is Avogadro’s Number?

A

A = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1

125
Q

What is the equation for calculating normality?

A

Molarity = Normality/ n

126
Q

How do you find the empirical and molecular formulas?

A
  1. First determine the number of moles of each element in the compound by assuming a 100 g sample
  2. Convert grams to moles
  3. Simplest whole number ratio of the elements by either multiplying or dividing by an integer
  4. To find the molecular formula divide the molar mass of the compound from the molar mass of the empirical formula to find an integer to multiple all of the atoms by
127
Q

What is a combination reaction?

A

A combination reaction is when two or more reactants form one product.

Example: 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 H2O (g)

128
Q

What is a decomposition reaction?

A

A decomposition reaction is one where a single reactant breaks down into two or more products usually as a result of heating, high-frequency radiation, or electrolysis.

Example: 2HgO (s) → 2 Hg (l) + O2 (g)

Reaction Conditions: Heat (Δ)

129
Q

What is a combustion reaction?

A

A combustion reaction is a special type of reaction that involves a fuel (usually a hydrocarbon and an oxidant ⇒ normally oxygen). In most forms, the products are, carbon dioxide and water.

Example: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

130
Q

What is a single-displacement reaction?

A

A single displacement reaction is one where an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another element.

Example: Cu (s) + AgNO3 (aq) → Ag (s) + CuNO3 (aq)

131
Q

What is a double-displacement reaction?

A

A double displacement reaction (metathesis) is one in which elements from two different compounds swap places with eachother to form two new compounds.

Example: CaCl2 (aq) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 AgCl (s)

132
Q

What is a neutralization reaction?

A

A neutralization reaction is a type of double-displacement reaction where an acid and a base react in order to produce a salt, and usually water.

Example: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

133
Q

How is the limiting reagent determined?

A

The limiting reagent is determined through comparing the moles of each of the reactants, with the stoichiometric ratios in order to find which reactant will get consumed first.

134
Q

How do you calculate percent yield?

A

Percent Yield = (Actual Yield/ Theoretical Yield) x 100%

135
Q

How are pKa and acidity related?

A

More acidic molecules will have smaller/more negative pKas.

pKa = -log Ka

136
Q

What are the four factors that influence nucleophilicity?

A
  1. Charge: Nucleophilicity increases with increasing electron density (more negative charge)
  2. Electronegativity: Nucleophilicity decreases as electronegativity increases because these atoms are less likely to share electron density
  3. Steric Hindrance: Bulkier molecules are less nucleophilic
  4. Solvent: Protic solvents can hinder nucleophilicity by protonating the nucleophile or through hydrogen bonding
137
Q

What are some characteristics of good electrophiles?

A
  1. Contain a positive charge or a positively polarized atoms that accepts an electron pair when forming new bonds with a nucleophile
  2. Type of leaving group on electrophile, better leaving group allows room for the nucleophile to attack
138
Q

What are characteristics of good leaving groups?

A
  1. The best leaving groups are able to stabilize extra electrons
  2. Weak bases are good leaving groups because they have an extra set of electrons
  3. The conjugate bases of strong acids tend to make good leaving groups
  4. Leaving group abilitiy can be augmented by resonance and by inductive effects from EWGs → These help delocalize and stabilize negative charge
  5. Alkanes and hydrogen ions will never serve as leaving groups
139
Q

What is an SN1 reaction?

A

Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions contain 2 steps. The first step is the RDS where the leaving group leaves, forming a carbocation. The nucleophile then attacks the carbocation, resulting in a substitution product.

3° > 2° > 1° carbocation stability, the most stable carbocation is preferred

The products of the reaction will be a racemic mixture, because the incoming nucleophile can attack the carbocation from either side.

140
Q

What is an SN2 reaction?

A

An SN2 reaction (bimolecular nucleophilic substitution) contain only one step (concerted). The nucleophile actively displaces the leaving group in a backside attack. In order for this to occur, the nucleophile must be strong and the substrate cannot be sterically hindered.

3° < 2° < 1° carbon, because the less sterically hindered carbon is preferred

The product of this reaction is stereospecific

141
Q

What can secondary alcohols be oxidized to?

A

Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones.

142
Q

What can primary alcohols be oxidized to?

A

Primary alcohols can be oxidized to either aldehydes or carboxylic acids, depending on the strength of the oxidizing agent.

143
Q

What is the hierarchy of how reactive carboxylic acid derivartives are towards nucleophilic attack?

A

anhydrides > carboxylic acids and esters > amides

144
Q

What is the equation and units for density?

A

ρ = m / V

units: kg/m3 or g/cm3

145
Q

What is the density of water?

A

1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3

146
Q

How do you calculate the weight of any volume of a given substance with a known density?

A

Fg = ρVg

Fg = weight

ρ = density

V = volume

g = acceleration due to gravity

147
Q

What is the specific gravity of an object and how do you calculate it?

A

The specific gravity of an object is often compared to that of pure water at 1 atm and 4°C. It is calculated using:

SG = ρ / 1 g/cm3

148
Q

What is pressure, what are the units, and how do you calculate it?

A

Pressure is the ratio of the force per unit area. It is calculated using:

P = F/A

The units of pressure are pascals, which is equal to newton per square meter (1 Pa = 1 N/m2).

149
Q

How do you convert between the different units of pressure?

A

1.013 x 105 Pa = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1 atm

150
Q

What is absolute or hydrostatic pressure, and what is the equation to calculate it?

A

Absolute or hydrostatic pressure is the total pressure that is exerted on an object that is submerged.

P = P0 + ρgz

P = absolute pressure

P0 = incident or ambient pressure (pressure at the surface)

ρ = density of the fluit

g = acceleration due to gravity

z = depth of the object

151
Q

What is gauge pressure, and how do you calculate it?

A

Gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure inside the tire and the atmospheric pressure outside the tire.

Pgauge = P - Patm = (P0 + ρgz) - Patm

when P0 = Patm equation is:

Pgauge = P - P0 = ρgz

152
Q

What is Pascal’s principle?

A

Pascal’s principle states that for fluids that are incompressible (fluids w/ volumes that cannot be reduced by any significant degree through application of pressure) a change in pressure will be transmitted indiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel.

153
Q

What is the equation showing the application of Pascal’s principle in hydraulic systems?

A

P = F1/A1 = F2/A2

154
Q

What is Archimedes’ Principle and what is the equation for it?

A

Archimedes’ Principle suggests that a body wholly or partially immersed in fluid will be buoyed upwards by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.

Fbuoy = ρfluidVfluid displacedg = ρfluidVsubmerged​g

Fbuoy = Magnitude of the buoyant force

155
Q

When will an object float and when will an object sink?

A

An object will float if its average densitiy is less than the average density of the fluid it is immersed in. It will sink if its average density is greater than that of the fluid.

156
Q

If an object’s specifc gravity is expressed as a percent what does it indicate about the submersion of the object?

A

The percent directly indicates how much of the object is submerged.

157
Q

What is the difference between cohesion and adhesion?

A

Cohesion is the attractive force that a molecule of liquid feels toward other molecules of the same liquid, while adhesion is the attractive force that a molecule of the liquid feels toward the molecules of some other substance.

158
Q

What is viscosity?

A

Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow and is represented by the variable η. The SI unit for viscosity is the pascal-second.

Pascal –> unit of pressure –> force per unit area –> N/m2 –> viscosity –> N x s / m2

159
Q

What is the equation for calculating the rate of laminar flow through a pipe or confined space?

A

Q = πr4ΔP/8ηL

Q = Flow rate (volume flowing/time)

r = radius of the tube –> small change in radius has a significant effect on the pressure gradient

ΔP = pressure gradient

η = viscosity of the fluid

L = length of the pipe

160
Q

What is turbulance?

A

Turbulance is rough and disorderly flow.

161
Q

What is critical speed, and how do you calculate it?

A

Critical speed is the speed at which if exceeded can result in turbulant flow. It can be calculated through:

vc = NRη/ρD

vc = Critical speed

NR = Reynold’s constant → Dependent on size, shape, and surface roughness of any objects within the fluid

η = viscosity of the fluid

D = diameter

162
Q

What is the continuity equation and what does it tell us?

A

The continuity equation is:

Q = v1A1 = v2A2

This equation tells us that the volumetric rate of flow must be constant throughout a closed system.

163
Q

What is Bernoulli’s equation?

A

P1 + 1/2ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + 1/2ρv22 + ρgh2

Statement of the conservation of energy within a closed fluid system. The sum of static pressure (P + ρgh) and dynamic pressure (1/2ρv2) will be constant within a closed container for an incompressible fluid not experiencing viscous drag.

164
Q

What are pitot tubes?

A

Pitot tubes are used to determine the speed of fluid flow by determining the difference between static and dynamic pressure of the fluid at any given point along the tube.

165
Q

How do you name alcohols?

A

If alcohol is the highest priority: -e ending is replaced by -ol, an alternative naming process is naming the alkyl group followed by “alcohol”. When the alcohol is not the highest priority use the prefix hydroxy-.

166
Q

What is a key physical property of alcohols?

A

Alcohols are capabile of intermolecular hydrogen bonding, resulting in significantly higher melting and boiling points. More hydroxyls = higher.

167
Q

What type of groups increase and decrease acidity?

A

Electron-withdrawing groups increase acidity because charges like to be spread out as much as possible. Electron donating groups (alkyl) decrease acidity.

168
Q

What can primary alcohols be oxidized to?

A

Primary alcohols can be oxidized to an aldehyde, but only by PCC. A stronger oxidizing agent (such as, Na2Cr2O7 and K2Cr2O7 or CrO3) can turn primary alcohols into carboxylic acids.

169
Q

What can secondary alcohols be oxidized into?

A

Secondary alcohols can be oxidized into ketones, by using PCC or any other stronger oxidizing agent.

170
Q

What can tertiary alcohols be oxidized into?

A

Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized because they are already as oxidized as they can be without breaking a carbon-carbon bond.

171
Q

Due to hydroxyls being poor leaving groups what can they be converted into to become better leaving groups?

A

Alcohols can be protonated (H2O) or reacted to form much better leaving groups called mesylates and tosylates. A mesylate is a compound containing the functional group -SO3CH3. A tosylate contains the functional group -SO3C6H4CH3. These groups can also serve as protecting groups.

172
Q

How can aldehydes or ketones be protected.

A

Aldehydes or ketones can be reacted with two equivalents of an alcohol (diol), forming acetals (primary carbons with two -OR groups and a hydrogen atom) or ketals (secondary carbons with two -OR groups). These groups won’t react with strong reducing agents such as LiAlH4. The protecting groups can be removed with the addition of a strong acid.

173
Q

What does the treatment of phenols with oxidizing agents produce?

A

Quinones

174
Q

What are hydroxyquinones?

A

Hydroxyquinones are the product of further oxidation of quinones (additions of one or more hydroxyl groups).

175
Q

What is the function of ubiquinone?

A

Ubiquinone is a biologically active quinone. It is also called coenzyme Q and is a vital electron carrier associated w/ complexes I, II, and III of the ETC. The long alkyl chain in this molecule allows it to be lipid soluable and act as an electron carrier within the phospholipid bilayer.

176
Q

What does Jones oxidation require?

A

Jones oxidation requires CrO3, H2SO4, and acetone.

177
Q

What is homotropic regulation by oxygen?

A

Homotropic regulation is when a molecule serves as a substrate for a target molecule, as well as a regulatory molecule of the enzyme’s activity. Oxygen participates in homotropic regulation with hemoglobin, due to cooperative binding.

178
Q
A

Alisha's MCAT Flashcards (4 decks)

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