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personal cards > The Respiraratory, Circulatory, Immune Systems > Flashcards

The Respiraratory, Circulatory, Immune Systems Flashcards

1
Q

Major Functions of the respiratory system

A

oxygen delivery/CO2 expel
prepare the air, by warming, moistening, cleaning
thermoregulation via evaporation of water during panting

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2
Q

function of the different structures of the respiratory system

A

nasal cavity - contains, nasal hairs, cilia and mucous secreted by goblet cells for immune function; capillaires warm the air
pharnyx - passageway for food and air
larynx - contains the vocal cords
trachea- contains mucous and cilia to collect particulate matter - immune function
bronchi, briochiole - branching to inccrease surgace area for gas exchange
aveoli - gas exchange

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3
Q

what protein is responsible for the elasticity of the alveoli? What type of energy does it store?

A

elastin - elastic potential energy

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4
Q

what type of cells/tissue lines gas exchanging surfaces?

A

simple squamous epithelium

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5
Q

T/F Alveoli contain cilia and mucus covering to protect against inhaled particiles

A

F. A mucus covering would be disadvantageous for gas exchange. Alveolar cells contain macrophages that engulf foreign particles

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6
Q

what type of cells/tissue lines gas exchanging surfaces?

A

simple squamous epithelium .called type 1 alveolar cells in the lungs

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7
Q

what brain structure controls breathing

A

medulla oblongata

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8
Q

How are inhalation/exhalation powered?

A

inhalation: ATP , exhalation: elastic potential energy

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9
Q

surfactant
function:
secreted by:

A

soapy substance of phospholipids, proteins and ions that coats the alveoli,
secreted by fat (cuboidal) epithelial cells

function: reduce the surface tension caused by fluid that coats the interior of alveoli

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10
Q

partial pressure

A

the pressure exerted by a gas in an indvidual mixture
Daltons Law Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P2…
mole fraction of a gas Pgas1 = xsubi (Ptotal)

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11
Q

Fick’s Law

A

governs the rate at which gas diffuses across the membrane. states that the rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the surface area and differential partial pressure across the membrane

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12
Q

Henry’s Law

A

amount of gas that can be dissolved into a liquid (the concentration) is directly proportional to the partial pressure of gas in equilibrium with the liquid
C = P x solubility

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13
Q

Fick’s Law

A

governs the rate at which gas diffuses across the membrane. states that the rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the surface area and differential partial pressure across the membrane. inversely related to thickness of the membrane

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14
Q

hemoglobin structure and function

A

organic cofactor composed of 4 polypeptide subunits. each subunit has an iron atom that can reversibly bind with one O2 molecule. the subunits binding of oxygen exhibits the phenomenon cooperativity.

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15
Q

describe and explain the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve

A

sigmoidal due to cooperativity of the 4 subunits . the curve demonstrates oxygen affinity of hemoglobin at a given partial pressure

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16
Q

what conditions can affect oxygen affinity of hemoglobin. describe how these change the oxygen dissociation curve.

A
  • cooperativity -
  • presence of competitors. CO2. CO2 buildup in the blood as byproduct of metabolism –> increased concentration of hydrogen ions because CO2 reacts with H2O to create carbonic acid which can dissociate releasing a H+ ion. Both CO2 and H+ can bind allosterically to deoxygenated hemoglobin causing a change in conformation that decreases affinity for oxygen (right shift of the oxygen dissocation curve) called Bohr shift for H+
  • temperature - increasing temperature decreases hemoglobin affinity for oxygen (associated with increased metabolic needs, thus increased need for oxygen to the tissues) . right shift of the oxygen dissociation curve
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17
Q

myoglobin

A

single chained protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells. does not exhibit cooperativity

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18
Q

what conditions can affect oxygen affinity of hemoglobin. describe how these change the oxygen dissociation curve.

A
  • cooperativity -
  • presence of noncompetitive inhibitors. CO2. CO2 buildup in the blood as byproduct of metabolism –> increased concentration of hydrogen ions because CO2 reacts with H2O to create carbonic acid which can dissociate releasing a H+ ion. Both CO2 and H+ can bind allosterically to deoxygenated hemoglobin causing a change in conformation that decreases affinity for oxygen (right/downward shift of the oxygen dissocation curve) called Bohr shift for H+
  • temperature - increasing temperature decreases hemoglobin affinity for oxygen (associated with increased metabolic needs, thus increased need for oxygen to the tissues) . right/downward shift of the oxygen dissociation curve
  • 2,3 DPG (BPG) - binds allosterically to deoxygenated hemoglobin in response to low oxygen conditions
  • CO - competitive inhibitor. 200 times greater affinity than O2. decreases percent oxygen saturation of hemoglobin but increases oxygen affinity of available hemoglobin. pure oxygen can be administered to displace CO
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19
Q

oxygen pressure is typically __ mmHg in body tissues

A

40 mmHg. This is lower than in the lungs

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20
Q

the formation of bicarbonate ions in the blood is catalyzed by what enzyme? where is the enzyme found? know the reversible reaction equation and what conditions affect the direction of the reaction

A

carbonic anhydrase
found in erythrocytes
CO2+ H2O –>

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21
Q

there is a higher/lower concentration of CO2 in the tissues than in the blood

A

higher - as metabolic waste product

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22
Q

oxygen pressure is typically __ mmHg in body tissues and deixygenated blood. typically ___ mmHg in oxygenated blood

A

40 mmHg. This is lower than in the lungs

100 mm Hg in the lungs

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23
Q

describe how breathing rate and oxygen/CO2 concentration are monitored

A

breathing rate is controlled by the medulla with input from central chemical receptors and peripheral chemoreceptors (in the carotid artery and aorta) that monitor the concentration of CO2 and O2. Nervous system has high sensitivity to CO2 ( low pH due to high H+ levels can be dangerous) but low sensitivity to O2.

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24
Q

How does nitrogen react in the blood?

A

it doesnt/ nitrogen is stable due to its triple bond and therefore diffuses into the blood but does not react. .loi87

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25
Q

How does nitrogen react in the blood?

A

it doesnt/ nitrogen is stable due to its triple bond and therefore diffuses into the blood but does not react.

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26
Q

primary functions of blood

A

transport respiratory gases
transport nutrients, waste, hormones
thermoregulation

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27
Q

what type of tissue is blood

A

connective tissue - contains cells and a matrix

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28
Q

3 main components of blood

A

plasma
buffy coat (wbcs)
rbcs

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29
Q

3 main components of blood and function

A

plasma: regulation of blood volume
- transport of ions, proteins, urea, ammonium and other compounds
- source of amino acids for tissue protein replacement
buffy coat (wbcs) : leukocytes - protect body from foreign invaders
rbcs (erythrocytes): transport O2 and CO2

30
Q

important proteins found in the plasma

A

albumin: transports fatty acids and steroids
immunoglobulins: antibodies

31
Q

3 main components of blood and function

A

plasma: regulation of blood volume
- transport of ions, proteins, urea, ammonium and other compounds
- source of amino acids for tissue protein replacement
buffy coat (wbcs) : leukocytes - protect body from foreign invaders
rbcs (erythrocytes): transport O2 and CO2
platelets (no nuclei)

32
Q

granular leukocytes vs agranular leukocytes

A

granular- granules in cytoplasm with lobed nucleus. non specific immune response
agranular - no granules in cytoplasm with large round nucleus. longer cell life

33
Q

precursor to all blood cells

A

stem cell residing in bone marrow

34
Q

blood serum

A

plasma from which fibrinogen has been removed

35
Q

platelets:

A

small portions of membrane bound cytoplasm torn from megakaryocytes. lack a nucleus, contains actin, myosin, mitochondria, portion of golgi and endo reticulum

important function in coagulation

36
Q

types of junctons found in cardiac muscle at electrical synapse

A

gap junction

37
Q

synoatrial node

A

group of autorhymthmic cells that set pace of heart beat. innervated by the parasympathetic vagus nerve that slows the contractions to produce the resting heart rate.

38
Q

know the flow of action potential in the heart

A

SA node –> AV node –> bundle of His –> Purkinje fibers

39
Q

what hormone is largely responsible for vasoconstriction during the sympathetic nervous system response?

A

epinephrine

40
Q

methods by which materials cross capillary walls

A

pinocytosis
diffusion/transport across plasma membrane
movement through pores in the cell
movement through spaces between cells

41
Q

how does glucose enter cells?

A

by facilitated diffusion

42
Q

how does glucose enter cells?

A

exits capillaries through spaces between cells and enters cells by facilitated diffusion

43
Q

equations that describe the relationship between pressure, flow, resistance

A

deltaP = Q(blood flow) x R

Q= volume/beat
R = beat/min
delta P = change in pressure from point a to point b

44
Q

which types of blood vessels contribute the most to peripheral resistance n the circulatory system?

A

artioles

45
Q

The body’s 2 main methods used to regulate blood pressure:

A 
baroreceptor reflex ( quick nervous system control)
renin -angiotensin aldosterone system (slower hormonal control)
46
Q

type of muscle that wraps blood vessels

A

smooth muscle

47
Q

which types of blood vessels contribute the most to peripheral resistance n the circulatory system?

A

arterioles

48
Q

The body’s 2 main methods used to regulate blood pressure: Describe

A

> baroreceptor reflex ( quick nervous system control)
- mechanoreceptors in blood that detect a change in pressure signal centers in the brainstem to alter SNS and PNS output to heart ad blood vessels. SNS innervation counteracts decrease in blood pressure by causing heart rate to increase and blood vessels to constrict. PNS innervation counteracts increase in blood pressure by causing heart rate to decrease and vessels to dilate.

> renin -angiotensin aldosterone system (slower hormonal control)

baroreceptor reflex: regulates cardiac output (heart rate) and blood vessel resistance

RAAS: regulates plasma volume

49
Q

Do capillaries or arteries have lower resistance? Explain.

A

When arterioles branch forming capillaries, the overall resistance decreases. The blood is able to flow into many capillaries in parallel decreasing the overall resistance of the capillary bed.

50
Q

The body’s 2 main methods used to regulate blood pressure: Describe

A

> baroreceptor reflex ( quick nervous system control)
- mechanoreceptors in blood that detect a change in pressure signal centers in the brainstem to alter SNS and PNS output to heart ad blood vessels. SNS innervation counteracts decrease in blood pressure by causing heart rate to increase and blood vessels to constrict. PNS innervation counteracts increase in blood pressure by causing heart rate to decrease and vessels to dilate.

> renin -angiotensin aldosterone system (slower hormonal control)
- mechanoreceptors in arteries leading to kidneys detect drop in blood pressure. renin chops off angiotensenigen (produced in liver) creating angiotensin I which is then converted to II. angiotensin II leads to smooth muscle constriction, pituitary to release ADH, medulla to release aldosterone, and kidneys to increase blood volume

baroreceptor reflex: regulates cardiac output (heart rate) and blood vessel resistance

RAAS: regulates plasma volume

51
Q

Poiseuille’s Law

A

describes the flow rate of blood
equation indicates how influential radius of vessels is on flow rate ( and nervous system input that affects cross sectional area of blood vessels).

52
Q

Poiseuille’s Law

A

describes the flow rate of blood
equation indicates how influential radius of vessels is on flow rate ( and nervous system input that affects cross sectional area of blood vessels).

blood velocity is inversely proportional to cross sectional area

53
Q

where is pressure highest in the circulatory system? lowest?

A

highest near heart at the aorta in systemic

lowest at venae cava

54
Q

describe the 2 types of pressure across the capillary wall. when are they highest/lowest? how does this affect flow of blood?

A

hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
Hydrostatic: the net pressure exerted by blood fluid/ interstitial fluid on capillary walls. pushing fluid out of capillaries into interstium (filtration)
osmotic pressure: pull of solutes in solution that leads to diffusion of solvent across membrane (main contributor is albumin in blood) . draws fluid back into capillaries (reabsorption)

HP is higher than OP when blood first enters capillaries. net flow out of capillaries into interstitium. HP drops from arteriole end to venule end of capillaries as HP cause fluid to move out of capillaries. OP eventually overcomes HP at venule end and there is net flow of fluid from interstitium into capillaries. There is 10% net loss of fluid into the interstitium which is removed and redeposited back into the circulatory system by the lymphatic system

55
Q

purpose of the lymphatic system and how it functions

A

remove interstitial fluid ( including proteins, glycerides, etc ) and monitor fluid for infections. has one way valves that allow fluid to flow in one direction. open system. lined with smooth muscles that contract when stretched. can be squeezed and compressed by body movements, skeletal muscle, objects. returns fluid to the blood at the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct

56
Q

lymph nodes

A

contain large quantities of lymphocytes. filter lymph notes and trap particles, respond to pathogens

57
Q

2 major branches of immune system

A

innate immunity - general and fast

acquired (adaptive) immunity - specific and slow

58
Q

major defenses of innate immunity

A 
skin
stomach acid and digestive enzymes
phagocytotic cells
blood chemicals 
inflammation
59
Q

purpose of inflammation and what processes it entails

A

purpose is to wall off affected tissue from the rest of the body. entails dilation of blood vessels, increased capillary permeability, swelling of tissue cells, migration of granulocytes and macrophages.

60
Q

major bodily causative agents of inflammation

A

histamines, prostaglandins, lymphokines

61
Q

cells involved in the innate immune system

A

macrophages - local first responders, huge, can engulf 100 bacteria,
neutrophils - next, slip between endothelial cells of capillary wall most stored in bone marrow but a few in the blood. arrive to the scene by diapedesis
eisinophils - targets parasitic infection
basophils - releases many of the chemicals involved in inflammation response

all phagocytic except basophils

62
Q

2 types of acquired immunity

A

antibody mediated immunity - effective against cells and toxins that have already made their way into the body’s cells - B-lymphpcytles
cell-mediated immunity - effective against cells that have already been infected. not effective against free floating substances - t lymphocytes

63
Q

functions of antibodies

A
  • mark antigen for phagocytosis
  • bind to antigen which may initiate the complement system leading to pathogen cell perforation and cell lysis
  • cause antigenic substances to agglutinate, precipitate, or deactivation of toxins
  • antibody base binds to mast cell which causes mast cell to release histamine and other chemicals (plays role in allergies and anphylactic shock)
64
Q

classes of antibodies (TPR p. 353)

A

mast cells

NK cells

65
Q

antibody structure

A

light chain and heavy chain - connected by disulfide bonds
variable region - contains the antigen binding site
constant region
transmembrane domain

66
Q

t/f both B lymphocytes and T lymphocytles can make free antibodies

A

F. only B lymphocytes can make free antibodies

67
Q

Types of T cells

A

T stands for thymus - the location of development during childhood

T helper -CD4
T killer -CD8

68
Q

Types of T cells

A

T stands for thymus - the location of development during childhood

CD4 respond to MHC2
CD8 respond to MHC1

T helper -CD4 -
T killer (cytotoxic) -CD8
Suppresor or regulatory T cells
Memory T Cells

69
Q

what types of T Cells are attacked by HIV

A

Helper T cells

70
Q

Types of T cells

A

T stands for thymus - the location of development during childhood

CD4 respond to MHC2
CD8 respond to MHC1

T helper -CD4 -
T killer (cytotoxic) -CD8
Suppressor or regulatory T cells
Memory T Cells

71
Q

function of MHC molecules. define and describe

A

what: major histocompatibility complex - membrane bound proteins
function: to display antigens for recognition

72
Q

MHC I vs MHC II

A

MHC 1 - displays antigens derived from intracellular pathogens
- endogenous pathway

MHC 2 displays antigens derived from extracellular pathogens which must be phagocytosed

  • performed by APCs
  • exogenous pathway z

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