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Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What are type 1 pneumocytes?

A

Single layer of alveoli wall. Aids diffusion

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2
Q

What are type 2 pneumocytes?

A

globous. secret fluid (surfactant) to moisten alveoli and prevent sticking together.

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3
Q

Where are sperms matured and learn to swim?

A

Epididymis

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4
Q

Function of seminal vesicles

A

provide sperms nutrients e.g. sugar for respiration

secrete mucus to protect sperm

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5
Q

Function of prostate

A

add alkali fluids to neutralise vaginal acid, mineral ions

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6
Q

Where is testosterone produced?

A

Interstitial cells

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7
Q

Where is FSH produced?

A

Anterior pituitary

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8
Q

What does testosterone, FSH, LH stimulate in spermatogenesis

A

FSH –> meiosis of primary spermatocyte
LH –> testosterone
Testosterone –> meiosis 2

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9
Q

Where is the origin of spermatogenesis

A

germinal epithelial

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10
Q

What is produced by type 2 pneumocytes?

A

Pulmonary surfactant

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11
Q

Which factors could cause emphysema?

a) air pollution
b) genetic predisposition
c) tobacco smoke

A

all above

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12
Q

Which organ in the human body secretes lipase, protease and amylase?

A

pancreas

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13
Q

In which process is surface area of key importance for humans?

a) reabsorption of glucose in the proximal convoluted tubule
b) release of surfactants by type 1 pneumocytes
c) display of antibodies by red blood cells
d) secretion of enzymes by villi of the small intestine

A

a

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14
Q

Which is the correct statement concerning HIV and AIDS?

a) all HIV patients have AIDS
b) HIV and AIDS are transmitted on the sex chromosomes
c) All AIDS patients have HIV
d) HIV and AIDS neutralize antibodies

A

c

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15
Q

What happens first when a neurotransmitter binds to a postsynaptic neuron?

a) ions diffuse
b) electrophoresis begins
c) Ca2+ channels open
d) repolarisation

A

a

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16
Q

Describe how the hormone leptin helps to prevent obesity

A

Produced in adipose tissue
(reject produced by pituitary)
target cells: hypothalamus
inhibits appetite

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17
Q

Explain the effect of neonicotinoid pesticides in insect synapses in the central nervous system

A 
Bind to acetylcholine receptors
Irreversible binding
prevents acetylcholine binding
Block transmission from central nervous system
Cause paralysis
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18
Q

Outline the process of inspiration in humans

A

Volume of lungs increases
Pressure: decreases (air enters lungs due to increased pressure outside of body)

Diaphragm: contracts + downwards, pushing abdomen wall out. Abdomen wall relax

External intercostal muscles: contract, pulling ribcage upwards and outwards
Internal: relax (Expiration: Internal contracts, pulling ribcage inwards and downwards)

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19
Q

Describe the functions of valves in the mammalian heart

A

Prevent backflow
Open valves allow blood to flow thru
Opening and closing of valves control timing of blood flow during cardiac cycle
Closed semilunar valves allow ventricle to fill with blood/allow pressure in ventricles to rise
Valves open when pressure is higher upstream

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20
Q

Where does mitosis in oogenesis occur?

A

germinal epithelial

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21
Q

What is mitosis 1 in oogenesis stimulated by?

A

FSH

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22
Q

Which stage does meiosis 1 in oogenesis stop?

A

prophase 1

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23
Q

What does secondary oocyte produce? why is it produced?

A

1st polar body; cytoplasm divide unequally

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24
Q

What does meiosis 1 produced in oogenesis?

A

secondary oocyte + 1st polar body

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25
Q

Which stage does meiosis 2 stop in oogenesis?

A

metaphase 2

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26
Q

What’s the function of LH?

A

Ovulation

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27
Q

When’s meiosis 2 completed in oogenesis?

A

after fertilisation

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28
Q

What does empty follicles become after fertilisation of ovum?

A

corpus lutuem

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29
Q

What does corpus luteum produce?

A

progesterone

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30
Q

Describe the steps of fertilisation.

A
  1. Acrosome reaction: enzymes in sperm head digest zona pellucida
  2. plasma membrane of egg and sperm fuse
    (Stimulates Ca2+ release in the egg; meiosis 2 completed)
  3. Cortical reaction: Cortical granules fuse with egg plasma membrane
    1, 2, 3 prevent polyspermy
    Nucleus of sperm stays in the egg cytoplasm
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31
Q

What is a fertilised egg called?

A

zygote

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32
Q

What does a zygote develop into?

A

morula

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33
Q

What does morula develop into?

A

blastocyst

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34
Q

Where is the blastocyst implanted?

A

endometrium

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35
Q

When is HCG released?

A

After the implantation of blastocyst in the endometrium

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36
Q

What does HCG stimulates?

A

Stimulate corpus luteum in the ovary to secrete progesterone and estrogen

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37
Q

What do progesterone and estrogen inhibit?

A

LH, FSH

38
Q

What is the function of progesterone?

A

To maintain the endometrium

39
Q

What happens after progesterone is secreted during early pregnancy?

A

Blastocyst develops into fetus; placenta forms

40
Q

What is a fetus surrounded by? What is it filled with?

A

amniotic sac, which is filled with amniotic fluid

41
Q

What are the cells that separate maternal and fetal blood?

A

Placental barrier

42
Q

What substances are exchanged in the umbilical arteries? How are they exchanged?

A

Carbon dioxide (diffusion)
Urea (diffusion)
water (osmosis)
Hormones

43
Q

What substances are exchanged in the umbilical veins? How are they exchanged?

A 
Oxygen (diffusion)
Glucose (facilitated diffusion)
Antibodies (endocytosis)
Water (osmosis)
Lipids
Minerals, vitamins
Hormones
44
Q

What are estrogen and progesterone secreted by during pregnancy?

A

Corpus Luteum in the ovaries

Placenta

45
Q

What is the muscular wall of uterus used during childbirth?

A

Myometrium

46
Q

What does oxytocin stimulates?

A

The contraction of myometrium

47
Q

How is positive feedback mediated when giving birth?

A

Contractions of myometrium are detected by stretch receptors, which signal the pituitary gland to increase oxytocin secretion.

48
Q

What is oxytocin secreted by?

A

pituitary gland

49
Q

What are the adaptations of the placenta?

A

Rich blood supply in fetus blood vessels
Few thin membranes give short diffusion path
Villi increase surface area of exchange
Placenta has many Rough endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles for production of HCG, progesterone, estrogen

50
Q

What system is used by insects to remove nitrogenous waste and osmoregulation?

A

The Malpighian tubule system

51
Q

What are osmoconformers?

A

Maintain an internal condition equal to the osmolarity of the environment

52
Q

What are osmoregulators?

A

Regulate their body osmolarity, which always stay constant irrespective of the environment.

53
Q

What is the function of cortex in the kidney?

A

ultrafiltration

selective reabsorption of blood contents

54
Q

What is the function of medulla in the kidney?

A

Osmoregulation/reabsorption of water

55
Q

What is the function of pelvis in the kidney?

A

Excretion: collecting ducts deliver urine to the pelvis to be passed on to the ureter

56
Q

Labelling nephron: Which parts are there in the cortex and what are their functions?

A

Renal capsule: ultrafiltration
Glomerulus: deliver blood
Proximal convoluted tubule: selective reabsorption
Distal convoluted tubule: secretion of toxins to urine

57
Q

Labelling nephron: Which parts are there in the medulla and what are their functions?

A

Loop of Henle: osmoregulation

Collecting duct: deliver urine to pelvis

58
Q

What is the function of biceps? Is it a flexor or extensor?

A

Bends the arm. Flexor

59
Q

What is the function of triceps? Is it a flexor or extensor?

A

Straightens the arm. Extensor

60
Q

What is the function of humerus?

A

Anchors the muscle

61
Q

What is the function of radius/Ulna?

A

Acts as forearm levers (radius for biceps; Ulna for triceps)

62
Q

What is the function of cartilage?

A

absorbs shock and distributes load

63
Q

What is the function of synovial fluid?

A

Lubrication, reduce friction in the joint

64
Q

What is the function of joint capsule?

A

Seal the joint, contains synovial fluid

65
Q

What is the function of tendons?

A

non-elastic tissue connecting muscle to bone

66
Q

What is the function of ligaments?

A

non-elastic tissue connecting bone to bone

67
Q

What does the myelination for nerve fibres allow for? What is its purpose?

A

saltatory conduction. Forces the action potential to jump from node to node.

68
Q

What are nerve impulses?

A

Action potentials propagated along the axon of neurons.

69
Q

What does action potential in a non-myelinated neuron activate?

A

depolarisation

70
Q

What causes potential to increase during a nerve impulse passing along a non-myelinated neuron?

A

voltage-gated sodium-channels open. sodium ions entering the axon.

71
Q

What happens in repolarisation?

A

potassium channels open and potassium ions diffuse out.

72
Q

What does refractory period ensure?

A

one-way conduction

73
Q

What returns axon to resting potential?

A

sodium-potassium pump

74
Q

Outline the actions taken by the body to avoid infection when the skin is cut. (3)

A 
Platelets release clotting factors
clotting factors activate thrombin
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
fibrin forms a clot that seals the cut
phagocytes ingest pathogens
75
Q

Identify two hydrolysis reactions that occur in the small intestine.

A

polysaccharides to disaccharides/monosaccharides
starch/glycogen to maltose
maltose to glucose
lactose to glucose and galactose
polypeptides to amino acids
triglycerides to glycerol and fatty acids

76
Q

How does the composition of blood in the renal artery differ from that in the renal vein?

A 
less urea and toxins
less oxygen
more carbon dioxide
less salts and ions
less water 
less glucose
no change in proteins
77
Q

What does urine contain?

A

urea, toxins, water, salts, ions

78
Q

Describe the action of the heart in pumping blood. (5)

cardiac cycle

A

Sinoatrial node in the right atrium sends an electrical impulse to the atrium, then to ventricle, which trigger ventricle contraction
Atrium diastole: blood runs passively to the ventricles
Atrium systole: pumps remaining blood to left ventricle
Ventricle systole: atrioventricular valve closes; semilunar valve opens, blood pumped to aorta
Ventricle diastole: semilunar valves closes. Blood pumped from aorta to the body

79
Q

What does the arrival of action potential in skeletal muscles cause?

A

release of Ca2+

80
Q

Where is Ca2+ released during skeletal contraction?

A

from sarcoplasmic reticulum

81
Q

Where does Ca2+ bind to during skeletal contraction?

A

troponin

82
Q

What does the binding of Ca2+ to troponin cause?

A

Troponin and tropomyosin to move and expose binding sites on actin

83
Q

How does myosin heads change shape?

A

energy released from ATP hydrolysis

84
Q

What causes the breakage of cross bridges in skeletal contraction?

A

ATP hydrolysis

85
Q

Define osmoregulators.

A

Organisms that maintain a constant internal solute concentration.

86
Q

Define osmoconformers.

A

Organisms that have same internal solute concentration as the concentration of solutes in the environment.

87
Q

What is the functional unit of kidneys?

A

Nephron

88
Q

What is osmoregulation

A

the balance of salt and water in the body

89
Q

What system do insect use to carry out osmoregulation? What does this system remove?

A

The Malpighian tubule system. removal of nitrogenous wastes.

90
Q

What is Florey and Chain’s experiment?

A

to test penicillin on bacterial infections in eight mice

Biology (13 decks)

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