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Biology 2311 > Chapter 10 - PowerPoint > Flashcards

Chapter 10 - PowerPoint Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two types of nuclear division?

A

mitosis and meiosis

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2
Q

In mitosis are the daughter cells exact genetic copies of the parent cells?

A

yes

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3
Q

What are ploidy human cells?

A

diploid

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4
Q

What does diploid mean?

A

2 copies of each chromosomes, 2n

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5
Q

In meiosis how many divisions are there?

A

2

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6
Q

How many daughter cells are produced in meiosis?

A

4

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7
Q

What are the daughter cells of meiosis called?

A

gametes

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8
Q

What is haploid mean?

A

one copy, n

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9
Q

What is the master program of molecular checks and balences?

A

In mitosis, DNA is replicated and split evenly

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10
Q

What is the mitotic cytoskeleton do?

A

separates replicated DNA molecules precisely into the daughter cells

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11
Q

What are chromosomes made of?

A

DNA and proteins

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12
Q

What do proteins do in DNA?

A

stabilize, assist in packaging DNA during cell division, and influence the expression of individual genes

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13
Q

What shape are chromosomes in eukaryotes?

A

linear

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14
Q

What does histone proteins do?

A

compact DNA

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15
Q

What is chromatin?

A

DNA and all of its associated protiens

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16
Q

What is a nucleosome?

A

8-protein nucleosome core particle forms when DNA winds around the histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4

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17
Q

What connects nucleosomes?

A

shorter liner segment of DNA

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18
Q

What are the histone proteins?

A

H2A, H2B, H3, and H4

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19
Q

How many of each histone proteins are in a nucleosome?

A

2

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20
Q

What is the first step of compaction

A

formation of nucleosomes

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21
Q

What charges does DNA have? why?

A

negative bc of phosphate groups

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22
Q

How wide is a nucleosomes?

A

10nm

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23
Q

How are nucleosomes further compacted? how big is it?

A

nucleosome and linker are bound by the fifth histone protein H1

30 nm

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24
Q

What is the difference between chromosomes and chromatin?

A

chromosomes are final form, everything else before this with proteins is chromatin

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25
Q

What does the solenoid model predict?

A

nucleosomes spiral helically

with about six nucleosomes per turn

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26
Q

Which chromatin is packed loosley?

A

euchromatin

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27
Q

Which chromatin is packed densly?

A

heterochromatin

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28
Q

Is euchromatin or heterochromatin regions more highly expressed?

A

euchromatin

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29
Q

What are Sister Chromatids

A

2 copies of the chromosome within the replicated chromosome

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30
Q

What are the sister chromatids held together by? where?

A

sister chromatid cohesion, at the center

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31
Q

What is cohesion

A

protein complex

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32
Q

Are homologous chromosomes identical?

A

nope

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33
Q

Are sister chromatids identical?

A

yes

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34
Q

What is ploidy?

A

The number of chromosome sets in a cell or species

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35
Q

What is a Karyotype?

A

Individual’s particular array of chromosomes.

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36
Q

How to prepare cells for a karyotypes?

A
  1. Add sample to culture medium that has stimulator for growth and division of cells (white blood cells in the case of blood). Incubate at 37oC.
  2. Stain the cells so that the chromosomes are distinguished.
  3. View the stained cells under a microscope equipped with a digital imaging
    system and take a digital photograph.
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37
Q

What are the steps included in eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

G1, S, G2, M, C

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38
Q

What is the longest phase?

A

G1

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39
Q

What steps are in interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

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40
Q

What is G1?

A

Gap 1 Phase, where primary growth takes places, is the longest phase

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41
Q

Which is phase varies in length?

A

G1

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42
Q

What is a cell that stays in the G0 phase?

A

neuron

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43
Q

How long does it take for a cell to divide?

A

24 hrs

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44
Q

how long does the G1 phase take?

A

10 hrs

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45
Q

How long does the S phase take?

A

9 hrs

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46
Q

How long does the G2 phase take?

A

4 hrs

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47
Q

How long does the M phase take?

A

1 hr

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48
Q

What happens in the S (synthesis) phase?

A

replication of DNA

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49
Q

What happens in the G2 phase?

A

organelles replicate, microtubules organize

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50
Q

What are the 5 phases of mitosis?

A

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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51
Q

What happens in cytokinesis?

A

separation of 2 new cells

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52
Q

Are human sex cells haploid or diploid?

A

haploid

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53
Q

What happens to the centrioles during mitosis?

A

they duplicate and divide

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54
Q

What is the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC)?

A

centrosome

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55
Q

Where do microtubules extend from?

A

centrosomes

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56
Q

What are asters?

A

starlike arrays formed from microtubules extending from the centersome

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57
Q

What happens to the nuclear envelope during interphase?

A

breaks down

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58
Q

In mitosis, at what stage do chromosomes first become visible with a light microscope?

A

prophase

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59
Q

Do asters exist in both plants and animal?

A

no, just animals

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60
Q

What are the 3 main things that occur in prophase?

A

1) spindle apparatus assembles (2 centersomes move to opposite poles forming spindle apparatus, and the formation of asters in animals)
2) nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate
3) nucleolus disappears

61
Q

What phase do the centrioles duplicate?

A

S phase

62
Q

When does prometaphase occur?

A

after nuclear envelope disassembles

63
Q

Where do spindle micorotubles grow from? grow to?

A

grow from centrosomes at

opposite spindle poles toward the center of the cell

64
Q

What is a kinetochores?

A

form on each sister chromatids at the the centromere

65
Q

Where do kinetochore microtubules bind?

A

kinetochores

66
Q

What are nonkinetochore microtubules?

A

overlap those from the opposite spindle pole

67
Q

What is congression?

A

chromosomes begin to move to center of cell via assembly and disassembly of microtubules and motor proteins at kinetochores

68
Q

What phase does congression occur?

A

preometaphase

69
Q

What are the two type of spindles in mitosis?

A

kinetochores and nonkinetochores

70
Q

What happens in metaphase?

A

spindle microtubules move chromosomes into alignment to the metaphase plate

71
Q

What is anaphase?

A

centromeres split, removal of cohesion proteins, sister chromatins pulled apart via microtubules shortening

72
Q

What are the two movements in anaphase?

A

anaphase A and anaphase B

73
Q

What happens in anaphase A?

A

kinetochores pulled toward poles, disassemble microtubules into tublin subunits

74
Q

What happens in anaphase B?

A

moves poles apart, nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell

75
Q

What happens in telophase?

A

1) spindle apparatus disassembles
2) chromosomes decondense and uncoil
3) nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister
chromatids
4) nucleolus reappears
5) RNA transcription resumes

76
Q

Do anaphase A and B occur at the same time?

A

yes

77
Q

What happens in cytokinesis?

A

creates 2 daughter cells

78
Q

How does cytokinesis occur in animals, protists, and many fungi?

A

furrow (contractile ring) girdles the cell and
deepens until it cuts the cytoplasm into two
parts

79
Q

How does cytokinesis occur in plants?

A

cell plate forms between the daughter nuclei and grows laterally until it divides the cytoplasm in two

80
Q

Where does mitosis occur in some other fungi and protists mitosis?

A

within the nucleus

81
Q

What is the plane of cytoplasmic division is determined by?

A

layer of microtubules that persists at the

former spindle midpoint

82
Q

What is the contractile ring made up of?

A

actin and myosin

83
Q

Do the steps in mitosis occur exactly after each other?

A

no, some happens simultaneously, ie contractile ring starts to form before cytokinesis

84
Q

In plant cytokinesis, what role do the vesicles play?

A

transport plant cell wall material to midline. produced from ER and golgi, and form the plasma membrane

85
Q

What do the motor proteins do in anaphase B?

A

walk in opposite direction

86
Q

What do nonkinetochore microtubules do in anaphase B?

A

push the pole apart by growing in length as they slide along

87
Q

What is a common single-celled model?

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast

88
Q

What did Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast lead to the discovery of?

A

some genes that control the eukaryotic cell cycle

89
Q

Why id Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast a good model? (4)

A

◦ Many cells that can be easily visualized
◦ Cell cycle can be paused at a specific phase
◦ All cells can be synchronized at one phase
◦ Mutations are easily generated

90
Q

What are the two irreversible points of the cell cycle?

A

1) Replication of genetic material (Between G1 and S)

2) Separation of the sister chromatids (2n –> 4n)

91
Q

Where can the cell cycle be put on hold?

A

checkpoints

92
Q

What are the two functions of checkpoints?

A

1) checked for accuracy and can be halted if there are errors
2) Allows cell to respond to internal and external signals

93
Q

What are the three key checkpoints?

A

◦ G1/S checkpoint
◦ G2/M checkpoint
◦ Mitotic spindle checkpoint

94
Q

What happens if a checkpoint is inactive?

A

cell cycle will proceed without stopping

95
Q

What are the molecules responsible for checkpoints?

A

cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases

96
Q

What happens in the G1/S checkpoint?

A

◦ Cell “decides” to divide

◦ Primary point for external signal influence

97
Q

What happens in the G2/M checkpoint?

A

◦ Cell makes a commitment to mitosis

◦ Assesses success of DNA replication

98
Q

What happens in the Late metaphase (spindle) checkpoint?

A

Cell ensures that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle

99
Q

Is the cell cycle under genetic control?

A

yes

100
Q

Is the cell cycle a true cycle?

A

yes

101
Q

What does true cycle mean?

A

its not reversible

102
Q

Are genes transcribed during the cycle?

A

yes, transcribed needed before their products are needed

103
Q

What are the significants of mutations affecting the cell cycle?

A

helped to identified the key regulatory pathways

104
Q

What checkpoint is the main point in the cell cycle at which a cell decides whether to divide or not?

A

G1/S checkpoint

105
Q

Why might the cell cycle stop at G1/S checkpoint?

A

DNA is damaged by radiation or chemicals. Also if the cell is nutritionally deficient or growth factors are absent.

106
Q

What is the checkpoint where the cell commits to mitosis?

A

G2/M

107
Q

Why might the cell stop at the G2/M checkpoint?

A

if DNA was not replicated accurately in S or if the DNA has been damaged by radiation or chemicals

108
Q

What are cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases made up of?

A

proteins

109
Q

When are cdks active?

A

when it is bound to cyclin

110
Q

What is kinases?

A

enzymes

111
Q

Do the concentration of cyclins change over the cell cycle?

A

yes

112
Q

When does the mitotic spindle checkpoint occur?

A

before metaphase in the M phase

113
Q

What happens when a cell begins anaphase?

A

it is irreversibly committed to completing M

114
Q

What are the 3 classes of cyclins?

A

G1/S cyclin, S cyclin, and M cyclin

115
Q

What is the role of G1/S cyclin?

A

required for transition from G1 to S, and to

commit to DNA replication

116
Q

What does the G1/S cyclin bind to? at what time?

A

Cdk2 near the end of G1

117
Q

What is the role of S cyclin?

A

required for initiation of DNA replication and progression

of the cell through S

118
Q

What does the S cyclin bind to? at what time?

A

binds to Cdk2 in the S phase

119
Q

What is the role of M cyclin?

A

required for the transition from G2 to M, and the progression of the cell through mitosis

120
Q

What does the M cyclin bind to? at what time?

A

M cyclin binds to Cdk1 in G2

121
Q 
What does the fourth class of cyclins ( G1 cyclin) binds to? at what time? Cdk4 and Cdk6 before the G1 /S
transition
A

Cdk4 and Cdk6 before the G1 /S transition

122
Q

What does the fourth class of cyclins ( G1 cyclin) form? function?

A

form two cyclin–Cdk complexes

needed to move the cell through the G1 checkpoint and proceed from G1 to S

123
Q

What is the M cyclin-Cdk1 complex is also called?

A

M phase-promoting factor (MPF)

124
Q

What happens to the MPF when the chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle

A

MPF activates another enzyme complex, the anaphase-promoting complex (APC)

125
Q

What happens when activated APC degrades an inhibitor of anaphase?

A

separation of sister chromatids

126
Q

What does APC direct the degradation of? what does this lead to?

A

M cyclin, causing Cdk1 to lose its activity

127
Q

What are the roles of Cdks? (3)

A

1) phosphorylate proteins
2) Primary mechanism of cell cycle control
3) Cdks partner with different cyclins at different points in the cell cycle

128
Q

What was the previous viewpoint of cyclins?

A

cyclins drove the cell cycle

129
Q

What is the current viewpoint of cycline? Where is this talked about?

A

Cdk itself is also controlled by phosphorylation (( talks about the discovery of M cyclin-CDK complex)

130
Q

What was Johnson and Rao’s experiment?

A

They fused human HeLa cells at different stages of the cell cycle. Cell fusion produces a single cell with two separate nuclei. The researchers allowed the fused cells to grow and determined whether one nucleus influenced the other in terms of progression through
the cell cycle

131
Q

What were the results of Johnson and Rao’s experiment?

A

DNA synthesis quickly began in the original G1 nucleus. Normally, the G1 nucleus would
not have initiated DNA synthesis until it reached S phase itself, which could have been several
hours later. The result suggested that one or more Molecules that activate S phase are present
in the cytoplasm of S phase cells

found cyclins and cdks (groundwork for, didn’t know what they were but discovered their affects)

132
Q

What are internal controls modified by?

A

external controls

133
Q

What are some examples of external controls

A

peptide hormones and growth factors

134
Q

What do hormones and growth factors act on the cell by?

A

reception-transduction-response pattern

135
Q

What happens to the reaction when it is triggered by the activated receptor?

A

may speed, slow, or stop the progress of cell division

136
Q

What is Contact inhibition? What phase will the cells enter?

A

stops the cell cycle b/c there are no is no room for division, will enter G0 phase

137
Q

Are cancer cells affected by contact inhibition?

A

no, they will keep dividing

138
Q

What does metastasis?

A

cancer cells lose adhesions to other cells and spread throughout the body

139
Q

What are oncogenes?

A

mutated form of these genes which encode altered versions of these products

140
Q

What does onco mean?

A

cancer causing

141
Q

What were they trying to find out in the Gorbsky experiment?

A

How do the chromosomes moves towards the poles?

142
Q

What was the hypothesis for the Gorbsky experiment?

A

The kinetochore microtubules moved pulling the chromosome towards the poles OR chromosomes
moved by sliding over or along the kinetochore microtubules.

143
Q

What was the set up for the Gorbsky experiment?

A

Bleached segment of kinetochores and watched what happened

144
Q

What was the result for the Gorbsky experiment?

A

support the hypothesis that chromosomes move

by sliding over or along kinetochore microtubules.

145
Q

how did mitosis evolve from binary fission?

A

Scientists believe that the ancestral division process was binary fission and that mitosis evolved from that process

146
Q

Does the cyclin bind to another protein? Name the protein.

A

Yes, cdk

147
Q

Does the other protein need the cyclin to work?

A

yes

148
Q

When Cyclin E and the other protein (Name?) form a complex, does the cell move through the cell cycle? Name the phases

A

cdk, G —> S

149
Q

What type of cyclin is cyclin E?

A

G1/S cyclin

Biology 2311 (16 decks)

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