Interactionism and Labelling Theory

Question 1

What two theories come under how a crime is defined?

Answer 1

• how an action is labelled is relative to the social context
• how an action is labelled depends on the perpetrator and how people react

Question 2

According to Plummer (1979), how is a crime labelled relative to the social context?

Answer 2

Plummer argues that there is no such thing as a deviant behaviour, instead it is a label which is regarded inappropriate within the social context.

Question 3

According to Plummer (1979), what two ways can a certain behaviour become labelled as deviant?

Answer 3

• societal deviance

- situational deviance

Question 4

According to Plummer (1979), what is societal deviance?

Answer 4

An action that goes against the norms of acceptability within society. These are often very serious which result in severe punishment such as crimes against children, sexual violence and violence in general.

Question 5

According to Plummer (1979), what is situational deviance?

Answer 5

Refers to actions that may not be regarded as deviant, it depends on the social situation.

Question 6

According to Plummer (1979), what 3 ways can situational deviance be shown?

Answer 6

• labels can change over time (same sex marriage e.c.t.)
• vary across cultures (alcohol consumption in the UK compared to Middle East)
• depends on social situation (violence to self protect)

Question 7

According to Newburn (2007), how is an action labelled due to the relative social context?

Answer 7

Adds that a behaviour only becomes deviant or criminal when the person is caught in the act. A crime is only a crime when they are caught, so technically it is labelled by an authority figure rather than the general public

Question 8

Evaluation of the claim that whether or not an action is labelled as deviant depends on the social context?

Answer 8

• just because there is no label, doesn’t mean it isn’t wrong
• useful

Question 9

According to Becker, how is an action defined based on how the perpetrator judges them?

Answer 9

Becker notes that what is defined as deviant depends on how people react to the incident. There are certain types of people that are more likely to have their crime responded to, for example, males, teenagers and working class.

Question 10

According to Becker, what two things does a label of crime lead to?

Answer 10

• self fulfilling prophecy

- master status

Question 11

According to Becker, how does a label of crime lead to a self fulfilling prophecy?

Answer 11

If people are judged in a way as if they’re going to commit crime, it will lead to a SFP. People internalise the judgement made and act as if it was true… teenagers example

Question 12

According to Becker, how does a crime label lead to a master status?

Answer 12

When someones deviant behaviour becomes their status and identity. This is felt if it is applied by a moral entrepreuneur

Question 13

According to Becker, what is a moral entrepreneur?

Answer 13

Public figures that have authority over how people are labelled, they are able to dictate to the rest of society what the standards of morality are. For example, David Cameron and hoodies

Question 14

Evaluation of the claim that whether an action is labelled as deviant depends on the people involved?

Answer 14

• Becker fails to note why certain people fall into catagories
• some moral entrepreneurs commit crime too

Question 15

Under the Social Construction of Official Crime Statistics, what are the 2 theories?

Answer 15

• the law is applied selectively

- the dark figure of crime

Question 16

According to Becker, how does selective law enforcement occur?

Answer 16

Because of negative labels applied by those in power, it leads to laws being passed that target certain groups. This can be stop and search and leads to selective law enforcement

Question 17

According to Becker, what does selective law enforcement affect…?

Answer 17

Affects the social construction of official crime statistics. Because the justice system targets certain people, they are more likely to get caught and therefore turnup on the OCS

Question 18

According to Becker, what two studies illustrate the idea that the law is selectively enforced?

Answer 18

• Piliavin and Briar (1964)

- Cicourel (1968)

Question 19

According to Piliavin and Briar (1964), what are physical cues?

Answer 19

In a study into arrest practices, found that police look for “physical cues” to decide whether to stop and search someone. This could be; gender, skin colour and age. More stop and searches = more arrests

Question 20

According to Cicourel (1968), what are typifications?

Answer 20

Study into USA police officers, found that police officers had in mind a “typical offender” Middle class families families were also capable of negotiating justice ensuring any middle class child was able to be let off the hook. This was done by using cultural capital to pursuade officers that they had it under control

Question 21

Evaluation of the view that the law is selectively enforced?

Answer 21

• research carried out has shone a light on institutional racism
• certain groups get more attention because they harm society more

Question 22

According to Labelling Theorists, what is the dark figure of crime?

Answer 22

Refers to all the crimes that go ahead and are not reported and convicted. The real Official Crime Statistics are only the ‘tip of the iceberg’ when it comes to the actual amount of crime taking place.

Question 23

According to Labelling Theorists, what are the 3 reasons for why the dark figure of crime emerges?

Answer 23

• selective law enforcement
• crimes are less likely to be reported
• actions of some are de-labelled

Question 24

How does selective law enforcement lead to a dark figure of crime?

Answer 24

Authorities target some individuals, therefore putting off other types of crime. For example, black people in the UK are 8 times more likely to be stop and searched than a white person. This leads to them making up 51% of all crime data despite being 3% of the overall population.

Question 25

How does some crimes not being reported lead to a dark figure of crime?

Answer 25

Some types of crime will go unnoticed. For example, the ONS says that 15% of people that experience sexual violence go onto report it, with 1.7% of these cases ending in a conviction.

Question 26

How do actions becoming de-labelled lead to a dark figure of crime?

Answer 26

Although wrong-doing has taken place, authorities decide not to take the case further, or maybe shove it through the civil courts.

Question 27

Evaluation of the view that there is a dark figure of crime?

Answer 27

-practical reasons as to why some crimes get handled differently, they effect society more.

Question 28

Under the Consequence of Labelling Theory, what are the 3 theories?

Answer 28

• primary and secondary deviance
• moral panics deviance amplification
• labelling, naming and shaming

Question 29

According to Lemert (1951), what is primary and secondary deviance?

Answer 29

Primary = when a person engages in a deviant action which breaches social norms but it has not yet been publicly identified.

Secondary = when a person engages in a deviant action which breaches social norms and they are caught

Question 30

According to Lemert (1951), does primary deviance impact upon ones identity?

Answer 30

Primary deviance does not significantly impact upon a persons self worth because there are no consequences to their actions.

Question 31

According to Lemert (1951), does secondary deviance impact upon a persons identity?

Answer 31

Yes, secondary deviance has significant impact upon a person’s identity. Once their action becomes known their status will turn, it will become their master status.

Question 32

According to Lemert (1951), what does a master status lead to for some people (primary and secondary deviance)?

Answer 32

A deviant career, if the person gets a criminal record, they won’t find employment meaning they have to further commit crime as a means of survival

Question 33

Evaluation of the view that a consequence of labelling is primary and secondary deviance?

Answer 33

• guilt

- victim status

Question 34

According to Cohen (1972), what is moral panic?

Answer 34

He seeks to explain how the media plays an integral role in the process of labelling and its consequences. A moral panic is when the media creates a disproportionate reaction to an event reported in the news.

Question 35

According to Cohen (1972), what study backs up his moral panic theory?

Answer 35

He studied two youth groups in the 1960s. The mods and the rockers, they had opposing views on many things and on a bank holiday weekend in 1964 they had a fight on a beach. The fight was described as rather insignificant but the media reported it as the ‘Day of Terror’, police were called upon to deal with the youths e.c.t.

Question 36

According to Cohen (1972), how can the mods and rockers example be used to show deviance amplification?

Answer 36

Deviance amplification is when the news reports on a crime, and then the crime gets worse. Following the ‘Day of Terror’, groups of youths gravitated towards sea side beaches looking for trouble. This lead to more fights emerging.
Cohen proposed that the more public attention a crime gets, the worse the problem gets.

Question 37

Evaluation of the view that the media leads to a moral panic and deviance amplification?

Answer 37

• functionalists believe that media response is boundary maintenance
• some people want the news to report on crime

Question 38

According to Braithwaite (1989), what is labelling, naming and shaming?

Answer 38

Braithwaite points out that the way the justice system responds to individuals has a huge impact on their future behaviours.

Question 39

According to Braithwaite (1989), what are the 2 types of shaming

Answer 39

• disintegrative

- reintegrative

Question 40

According to Braithwaite (1989), what is disintegrative shaming?

Answer 40

When the individual is labelled a bad person by officials in the justice system, which is then shared by the public mood. For example, a judge may label a criminal as “evil”. This reinforces the message that the criminal is inherently bad, people therefore do not trust them and do not want to be around them. This negatively effects relationships and employment opportunities leading to a self fulfilling prophecy and deviant career.

Question 41

According to Braithwaite (1989), what is reintegrative shaming?

Answer 41

When the action an individual commits is seen as bad. A judge may say they “made a mistake” or acted “out of character”, this sends a message to the public that the crime was a one time thing and can be reformed. This individual can still access relationships and employment and can reintegrate back into society.

Question 42

According to Braithwaite (1989), what real world examples can be used to illustrate disintegrative and reintegrative shaming?

Answer 42

USA reoffending rate = 70%

Norway reoffending rate = 20%