11

Question 1

____ central idea was that all phenomena, from consciousness to political institutions, are aspects of a single ____ (by which he means “mind” or “idea”) that over the course of time
is reintegrating these aspects into
itself.

Answer 1

Georg Hegel, Spirit

Question 2

This process of reintegration
is what Hegel calls the “____”,
and it is one that we (who are all
aspects of Spirit) understand as
“_____.”

Answer 2

Dialectic, Spirit

Question 3

Hegel is therefore a
_____, for he believes that all
things are aspects of a single thing,
and an ____, for he believes that
reality is ultimately something
that is not material (in this case
Spirit).

Answer 3

Monist, Idealist

Question 4

_____ was born in 1770 in
Stuttgart, Germany, and studied
theology at Tübingen where he
met and became friends with the
poet Friedrich Hölderlin and the
philosopher Friedrich Schelling. was forced to leave Jena when
Napoleon’s troops occupied the
town, and just managed to rescue
his major work, ______, which catapulted him to a dominant position in German
philosophy.

Answer 4

Georg Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit

Question 5

For ____, the basic ways in which
thought works, and the basic
structures of consciousness, are a
____—that is, they exist prior to
(and so are not are not derived from)
experience.

Answer 5

Immanuel Kant, Priori

Question 6

Likewise,
it seems plausible to claim that
the structures of thought are not
____—that the kind of activity
that thinking is, and what mental
faculties it relies on (memory,
perception, understanding, and so
on), has always been the same for
everyone throughout history.

Answer 6

Historical

Question 7

Hegel’s _____ shows how opposites find resolution. A state of ____, for example, generates a need for
freedom—but once freedom has been achieved there
can only be anarchy until an element of tyranny is
combined with freedom, creating the _____

Answer 7

Dialectic, Tyranny, Synthesis Law

Question 8

However, Kant
continues, this a priori framework
means that the world as it appears they are “_____“—meaning
that they are always subject to
change. The notion of dialectic is central
to what Hegel calls his _____ of the development
of things.

Answer 8

Dialectical, Immanent (internal) Account

Question 9

Fourth, that this process happens
entirely from “within” the notion
itself. This fourth requirement
reveals the core of Hegel’s logic—
namely that every notion, or
“____”, contains within itself a
contradiction, or “____”, which
is only resolved by the emergence
of a newer, richer notion, called a
“____”, from the original notion
itself.

Answer 9

Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis

Question 10

An example of this logical
progression appears at the
beginning of Hegel’s ____, where he introduces the
most general and all-inclusive
notion of “____”—meaning
anything that in any sense could be
said to be. He then shows that this
concept contains a contradiction—
namely, that it requires the opposite
concept of “____” or “_____” for it to be fully understood

Answer 10

Science of Logic, Pure Being, Nothingness, Not Being

Question 11

In the case of “being”
and “not-being”, the concept that
resolves them is “____.” When
we say that something “_____”,
we mean that it moves from a state
of not-being to a state of being—so
it turns out that the concept of
“____” that we started off with
was not really a single concept at
all, but merely one aspect of the
three-part notion of “____.”

Answer 11

Becoming, Becomes, Being, Becoming

Question 12

All ideas, according
to Hegel, are interconnected in this
way, and the process of revealing
those connections is what Hegel
calls his “_______.”

Answer 12

Dialectical Method

Question 13

In Hegel’s view, a synthesis emerging from an ____of thesis and antithesis itself
becomes a new thesis, which generates its own _____—which finally gives birth
to another _____. This dialectical
process is one in which Spirit comes to
ever more accurate understandings of itself—culminating in the philosophy of Hegel, in which it achieves complete understanding

Answer 13

Antagonism , Antithesis, Synthesis

Question 14

Since it is a dialectical
process, it must in some sense
contain both a particular sense of
direction and an end point. Hegel
calls this end point “_____”—and by this he means a
future stage of consciousness
which no longer even belongs to
individuals, but which instead
belongs to reality as a whole.

Answer 14

Absolute Spirit

Question 15

At this point in its development,
knowledge is complete—as it must
be, according to Hegel, since Spirit
encompasses, through dialectical
“____” (nature as a living whole)
to that which has “____” (the whole of nature now
revealed as always having been,
when properly understood, Spirit).

Answer 15

Only Life, Existence as Spirit

Question 16

____, according to
Hegel, perfectly embodied the ____
(____) and was able, through
his actions, to move history into the
next stage of its development

Answer 16

Napoleon Bonaparte, Zeitgeist, Spirit of the Age

Question 17

Furthermore, Spirit
grasps this knowledge as nothing
other than its own completed
essence—the full assimilation of
all forms of “____” that were
always parts of itself, however
unknowingly

Answer 17

Otherness

Question 18

As Hegel writes in ____, “____ is a conscious,
self-mediating process—[it is]
Spirit emptied out into time.”

Answer 18

The Phenomenology of Spirit, History

Question 19

According to Hegel, what we
ordinarily call “___” or “____”
is also Spirit. “____ is to be
regarded as a system of stages,” he
writes, “one arising necessarily from
the other and being the proximate
truth of the stage from which it
results.”

Answer 19

Nature, The World, Nature

Question 20

Later stages of
_____, however, are no
longer those of individuals, but are
those of social or political groups—
and so the dialectic continues,
refining itself until it reaches the
stage of Absolute Spirit.

Answer 20

Consciousness

Question 21

At the time Hegel was writing,
there was a dominant philosophical
view that there are two kinds of
entities in the world—____ and
____—
these latter being something like
pictures or images of the things.

Answer 21

Things that exist in the Physical World, Thoughts about these things

Question 22

For Hegel, the illusion of difference and
separation between these two
apparent “____” is shown as such
when both thought and nature are
revealed as aspects of Spirit. This
illusion is overcome in Absolute
Spirit, when we see that there is
only one reality—that of ___,
which knows and reflects on
itself, and is both thought and
what is thought about.

Answer 22

Worlds, Spirit

Question 23

” Thus, Hegel
writes, “The True is the Whole.
But the Whole is nothing other
than the ___ consummating
itself through its development.”
____ is Spirit—both thought
and what is known by thought—
and undergoes a process of
historical development.

Answer 23

Essence, Reality

Question 24

_____ had reached its end
point in the Prussian state, according
to Hegel. However, there was a strong
feeling in favor of a united Germany, as
personified by the figure of Germania.

Answer 24

German History

Question 25

____ opened the first chapter of his most famous work, _____, with the claim that all historical change comes about as the result of an ongoing conflict between dominant (upper) and subordinate (lower) social classes, and that the roots of this conflict lie in ____.

Answer 25

Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto, Economics

Question 26

It was conflicts between these _____, he claimed, that caused ______.

Answer 26

Classes, Revolutionary Change

Question 27

Marx wrote ____ with the German philosopher ____, whom he had met when they were both studying academic philosophy in Germany during the late 1830s.

Answer 27

The Manifesto, Friedrich Engels

Question 28

The Manifesto seeks to explain the values and political plans of ____—a new belief system put forward by a small and relatively new group of radical German socialists. The Manifesto claims that society had simplified into two classes in direct conflict: the ____ (the capital-owning class) and the ____ (the working class).

Answer 28

Communism, Bourgeoisie, Proletariat

Question 29

The word “bourgeoisie” is derived from the French word ____, or ____: a property owning tradesman who had risen above the general populace to own and run his own business.

Answer 29

Burgeis, Burgher

Question 30

Marx writes, the bourgeoisie had “substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal ____.” Charters that had once protected people’s freedom had been cast aside for one “unconscionable freedom—____.”

Answer 30

Exploitation, Free Trade

Question 31

The only solution, according to Marx, was for all the instruments of economic production (such as land, raw materials, tools, and factories) to become ____, so that every member of society could work according to their capacities, and consume according to their needs.

Answer 31

Common Property

Question 32

Marx insists that the process is not a journey of spiritual development, but of real historical change. Marx claims that the final, conflict-free state that lies at the end of the process is not the spiritual bliss that Hegel predicted, but the ____, where everyone works harmoniously toward the good of a greater whole.

Answer 32

Perfect Society

Question 33

____ is a record of these class struggles and displacements

Answer 33

History

Question 34

Marx agrees with Smith that this system of exchange led people to specialize in their labor, but he points out that this new specialization (or “job”) had also come to ____ them

Answer 34

Define

Question 35

According to Marx, there have been four major stages in human history, which he sees as based on four different forms of property ownership:

Answer 35

Original tribal system of common property Ancient communal and state system of ownership The feudal or estate system of property The modern system of capitalist production

Question 36

Each of these stages represents a different form of economic system, or “____”, and the transitions between them are marked in history by stormy political events, such as wars and revolutions, as one ruling class is displaced by another

Answer 36

Mode of Production

Question 37

_____ popularized the idea that through understanding the system of property ownership in any one society, in any particular era, we can acquire the key to understanding its ____.

Answer 37

The Communist Manifesto, Social Relations

Question 38

Marx also believes that an analysis of the economic basis of any society allows us to see that as its system of property alters, so too do its “____”—such as its politics, laws, art, religions, and philosophies

Answer 38

Superstructures

Question 39

The wealthy ____ enjoyed the luxuries of life in the late 18th and 19th centuries, while the ____ in their companies and on their estates endured terrible poverty

Answer 39

Bourgeoisie, Workers

Question 40

But where Hegel saw the ____ as determined by an Absolute Spirit developing over time, Marx sees it as defined by the social and economic ____ of an era. These define the ideas or “____” of individuals and societies.

Answer 40

Zeitgeist, Relations, Consciousness

Question 41

In Marx’s view, people do not make a stamp on their era, molding it into a particular shape; the ___ defines the ___.

Answer 41

Era, People

Question 42

____ saw the formalization of specialized skills into paid employment. People then formed into groups, or classes, made up of those with similar socio-economic status.

Answer 42

The Industrial Revolution

Question 43

The answer for Marx lies not only in the end of religion, but in _____.

Answer 43

Total Social and Political Change

Question 44

The Communist Manifesto argues that the ____ is not merely exploitative, but also inherently financially unstable, leading to the recurrence of increasingly severe commercial crises, the growing poverty of the workforce, and the emergence of the ____ as the one genuinely revolutionary class.

Answer 44

Capitalist System, Proletariat

Question 45

Marx predicted that as ____ improved, it would lead to increasing _____, alienating more and more people from the ____.

Answer 45

Technology, Unemployment, Means of Production

Question 46

Following the rules of the dialectic, this conflict would result in a _____ to establish a new, ____.

Answer 46

Violent Revolution, Classless Society

Question 47

Marx thought this perfect society would not require government, but only ____, and this would be carried out by the leaders of the revolution: the communist “___” (by which he means those who adhered to the cause, rather than any specific organization).

Answer 47

Administration, Party

Question 48

Within this new kind of state (which Marx called the “_____) people would enjoy genuine democracy and social ownership of wealth. Shortly after this final change in the mode of production to a perfect society, Marx predicted, ____ as it had previously been understood would come to an end, because there would be no good reason for political dissent or criminality.

Answer 48

Dictatorship of the Proletariat, Political Power

Question 49

_____ swept through Europe just after the publication of The Communist Manifesto. These included the February Revolution of 1848 in Paris

Answer 49

Socialist-inspired revolutions

Question 50

The brilliance of Marx’s theories has been proved wrong in ____: the extent of ____ in Stalinist Russia, in Mao Zedong’s China, and in Pol Pot’s Cambodia, has widely discredited his political and historical theories.

Answer 50

Practice, Repression

Question 51

____ of the 20th century promoted themselves as utopias. They produced a proliferation of paintings and statues glorifying the achievements of their happy, newly liberated citizens.

Answer 51

Marxist States

Question 52

Third, Marx rarely discussed the possibility that new threats to liberty might emerge after a successful revolution; he assumed that ___ was the only real cause of criminality.

Answer 52

Poverty

Question 53

____, the most famous revolutionary thinker of the 19th century was born in the German city of Trier.

Answer 53

Karl Marx

Question 54

Living in England from 1842 to 1844, the German philosopher ____ had seen, first-hand, the devastating effects of ____ on workers and their children.

Answer 54

Friedrich Engels, Industrialization

Question 55

The ____, or ____, he said, knowingly causes the workers’ “life of toil and wretchedness... but takes no further trouble in the matter.” He claimed the____ was turning a blind eye to their part in the early deaths of their workers, when it was within their power to change things, so he accused them of “____”.

Answer 55

Bourgeoisie, Capitalist Class, Bourgeoisie, Social Murder

Question 56

In the 1840s, ___ was seen as the workshop of the world; it enjoyed a unique position at the center of the ___.

Answer 56

England, Industrial Revolution

Question 57

_____ had driven down prices, so handcrafted work, which was more expensive, was less in demand; ____ moved to the cities only to endure harsh conditions and financial insecurity.

Answer 57

Industrialization, Workers

Question 58

In Engels’ first book, _____ he described the appalling way of life of the workers, or proletariat, in Manchester, London, Dublin, and Edinburgh, and found similar situations in all these cities.

Answer 58

The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844

Question 59

The ____ were worked to the point of exhaustion, wearing cheap clothing that gave no protection against accidents or the climate.

Answer 59

Proletariat

Question 60

_____ in England during the 1840s endured social deprivation, crippling financial instability, and terrible sickness due to the effects of ____.

Answer 60

Working Class Families, Industrial Capitalism

Question 61

Political theorist and philosopher ____ was born in Germany in 1820.

Answer 61

Friedrich Engels

Question 62

Marx argued that communism solves a problem that bedevils capitalism—____

Answer 62

The Organization of Work

Question 63

In the ____, Marx developed the notion of “_____,” the separation of human beings from their true nature and potential for fulfillment. Marx saw various kinds of ____ as inevitable in capitalist labor markets.

Answer 63

Manuscripts, Alienated Labor, Alienation

Question 64

Marx believed that ___ has the potential to be one of the most fulfilling of all human activities.

Answer 64

Work

Question 65

Capitalism and private property make labor into a ____. This ____workers from what they produce, from their work, from their human identity, and from their fellow humans. ____ abolishes private property and brings the end of alienation. ____ is the riddle of history solved.

Answer 65

Commodity, Alienates, Communism, Communism

Question 66

Under a ____, according to Marx, the worker becomes disconnected from the products that he creates the moment they are handed over to his employer. This causes the worker to lose his self-identity.

Answer 66

Capitalist System

Question 67

Under capitalism, the existence of private property separates society into ____—who own productive resources, such as factories and machines—and ____—who possess nothing except for their labor.

Answer 67

Capitalists, Workers

Question 68

____ becomes a commodity to be bought and sold, and workers are hired by capitalists to produce goods that are then sold for profit.

Answer 68

Labor

Question 69

Marx said that workers also suffer from alienation through the very act of ___. Under capitalism, workers’ activity does not arise out of their inherent creativity, but from the ____ of working for someone else.

Answer 69

Working, Practical Necessity

Question 70

The worker becomes someone else’s subject. His labor is no longer his ___ and his activity is no longer spontaneous and creative, but directed by another who treats him as a mere ____.

Answer 70

Own, Tool of Production

Question 71

____ is the positive transcendence of private property as human self-estrangement.

Answer 71

Communism

Question 72

The worker’s alienation from the fruits of his labor and from the activity of working estranges him from his human identity—what Marx calls his “____”. This is because human identity is rooted in people’s ability to transform the raw material of nature into objects.

Answer 72

Species-being

Question 73

Workers in capitalist systems lose the connection with this basic identity—____ makes productive activity a means to an end, rather than the way in which an individual’s fundamental identity is embodied and played out. ____ is what makes up life, and once this becomes alien to the worker, the worker loses the sense of his human self.

Answer 73

Economic Necessity, Activity

Question 74

Since the ____ estranges people from their own essential identity, they become estranged from each other’s identity too. The worker is placed into a relationship of confrontation with the ___, who owns the fruits of the work and who controls the worker’s labor activity for his own enrichment.

Answer 74

Labor Market, Capitalist

Question 75

Marx believed that ____ lay at the root of the alienation of the worker. The division of society into ____capitalists and ____ workers is what leads to the alienation of workers.

Answer 75

Private Property, Property-Owning, Propertyless

Question 76

An aspect of the system of private property is exchange and the “_____” .

Answer 76

Division of Labor

Question 77

For Marx, ____ resolves the tension caused by the alienation of the worker by ____ private property, and finally solves the riddle thrown out by capitalism.

Answer 77

Communism, Abolishing

Question 78

Marx believed that historical developments are determined by “____”—or ____—factors. Human beings have material needs and possess the ability to ____ to satisfy them

Answer 78

Material, Economic, Produce Goods

Question 79

Production of these goods can be organized in different ways, each of which gives rise to different kinds of social and political arrangements, which in turn lead to particular beliefs and ideologies. Marx believed that material economic factors were the fundamental ____, and therefore the ____, of ____.

Answer 79

Determinant, Motor, History

Question 80

____ —a particular way of organizing production—is a response to the material needs of human beings. It arose as older feudal forms of production died out. As the forces of production develop under capitalism, the suffering of workers becomes obvious, and history moves inevitably toward ____ and the ushering in of communism to replace it.

Answer 80

Capitalism, Revolution

Question 81

One challenge in assessing Marx’s legacy is separating what he really meant from what was done in his name, particularly since communist ideology was used to justify ____ and _____ in many places and at different times.

Answer 81

Totalitarianism, Oppression

Question 82

Between 1830 and 1842, the French philosopher ____ had suggested that it was possible, and even necessary, to make a scientific study of society. ____ agreed that an objective, methodical approach was overdue and was among the first to tackle the subject. And where Comte saw science as the means of achieving social change, Marx pointed to the inevitability of ____.

Answer 82

Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Political Action

Question 83

"_____,” as this approach to historical development came to be known, provided an explanation for the transition from feudal to modern capitalist society, brought about by new methods of economic production.

Answer 83

Historical Materialism

Question 84

Under ____, the nobles had controlled the means of agricultural production, as owners of the land that the peasants or serfs worked. With ____ a new class, the bourgeoisie, emerged as owners of a new means of production

Answer 84

Feudalism, The Machine Age

Question 85

Five historical epochs were identified by Marx:

Answer 85

Primitive Communism Slave Society Feudalism Capitalism Communism

Question 86

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of ____.

Answer 86

Class Struggles

Question 87

It is the _____ of material necessities, Marx argued, that determines the social structure of capitalist society: ________.

Answer 87

Method of Production, The Classes of Capital and Labor

Question 88

____ obtain their wealth from the ____ value of goods produced, in the factories they own, by the labor of the workers. The _____, on the other hand, own almost nothing, and in order to survive have to sell their ____ to the bourgeoisie.

Answer 88

Capitalists, Surplus, Proletariat, Labor

Question 89

In addition, the unskilled nature of the work in factories and mills contributes to a feeling of ____ and ____ from the process of production, which is aggravated by the threat of _____ when production ____ demand

Answer 89

Dehumanization, Alienation, Unemployment, Exceed

Question 90

Over time, however, oppression fosters a ____ in the proletariat—a realization that together the working class can organize a movement for its _____.

Answer 90

Class-consciousness, Collective Good

Question 91

The inherent _____ of capitalism tends to prevent such a development among the bourgeoisie, and _____ leads to more and more frequent economic crises.

Answer 91

Self-Interest, Constant Competition

Question 92

Durkheim acknowledged that industry had shaped modern society, but argued that it was ____ itself, rather than capitalism, that was at the root of ____.

Answer 92

Industrialization, Social Problems

Question 93

Regarded as one of the “founding fathers” of social science, ____ was also an influential economist, political philosopher, and historian. He was born in Trier, Germany, and at his lawyer father’s insistence, he studied law, rather than the philosophy and literature he was interested in, at the University of Bonn, and later at Berlin.

Answer 93

Karl Marx