Chem/Phys Flashcards
The SI base unit for mass is
the kilogram
How do we sum vectors?
Trace a path from one vector to the next and then map the path from the origin to the endpoint of the vector sum
What is the equation for vx?
vo x cos(θ)
What is the equation for vy?
vo x sin(θ)
What is the kinematic equation for Δy?
Δy = vyt + 1/2at²
In circular motion, the moving object is always accelerating toward ________.
the center of the circle
The slope of a _______ vs. _______ graph denotes velocity
displacement; time
An acceleration that remains steady at 0 m/s is a _______ acceleration
constant
A free fall situation refers to what?
situations where an object has no initial vertical velocity and experiences constant acceleration due to gravity
What is the simplified free fall equation?
t=√(2y/g)
What is a radical?
a species with one or more unpaired electrons
How do you determine entropy change in a reaction given the moles of reactants and products?
Count up the number of moles on both the reactants and products side
For a zero order reaction, the rate law is the _____ ______ and a plot of the reactant concentration over time is a straight line with ___ as the slope
rate constant; -k
How can we determine the order of a reaction given the rate law?
by adding up the exponents for the reactants included in the rate law
What are the units for a third order reaction?
M⁻²⁻s¹
Catalysts [stabilize or destabilize] the transition state.
stabilize
A [homogenous or heteogenous] catalyst is one that is in a different phase than the gaseous and liquid reactants
heteogenous
What is the overall order of a chemical reaction if it involves a single reactant (R) and if a plot of 1/([R]) vs. time is linear?
second order
What is the overall order of a chemical reaction if it involves a single reactant (R) and if a plot of [R] vs. time is linear?
zero order
What is the overall order of a chemical reaction if it involves a single reactant (R) and if a plot of (ln R) vs. time is linear?
first order
Only ________ are included in rate laws
reactants
What is the first step to determine the order of a specific reactant given the rate of the reaction and the concentrations of each reactant?
look for any cases where the concentrations of two reactants stayed constant while the third changed
What is the equation for the velocity of a sound wave in a certain material?
v=√B/p
If a given material has the smallest bulk modulus of the materials listed, then sound will travel more _______ through the material than others
slowly
What is an anomer?
a specific type of epimer that differs only at the anomeric carbon
The _______ carbon is derived from the carbonyl carbon in the sugar’s straight-chain aldehyde or ketone form and is bound to __ oxygen atoms
anomeric; 2
What is the equation for torque?
𝛕=rFsinθ
What are the two forces acting on a beam in the horizontal direction?
the x component of the tension and the reaction force from the hinge
What is torque?
a twisting force (F) applied at some distance from the center of rotation
What are triceps, what force do they provide, and what is their function?
muscles on the back of the humerus, opposing the biceps, providing a force that extends the arm, and increases the angle of the arm when the biceps relax
What tissues in the body generate force?
muscles
What is the formula for Fstatic?
(μs)(N)
static frictional force acts [statement]
to oppose motion and never actually makes an object start moving in the opposite direction
terminal velocity is only relevant in cases where ___ _________ is present
air resistance
when no non-conservative forces are present, a projectile not in contact with any other objects will experience only the ________ ________ _________
downward gravitational force
When does rotational equilibrium occur?
the sum of the downward (counterclockwise) torques must equal the sum of the upward (clockwise) torques
What does Faraday’s constant state?
9.65 x 10⁴ coulombs are present per mole of electrons
Lewis bases are species that ______ an electron pair
donate
CN⁻ is an example of a _____ ____
Lewis base
RHR-1 involves what?
pointing your right thumb in the direction of the moving current & curl your fingers around the wire
How can we determine the theoretical yield?
multiply the # of moles of product formed by the molar mass
At physiological pH, the carboxyl group of glycine is _________, & ___ charge is delocalized by resonance btw the 2 O atoms
deprotonated; negative
[More or Less] energy is needed to evaporate water to vapor than to melt ice to water because no _______ bonds exist in water vapor
More; hydrogen
Hydrolysis is a rxn that releases a _____ ____ from a _________
fatty acid; triglyceride
Bacteria often have _______ that catalyze hydrolysis of ester linkage btw fatty acid & triglyceride
lipases
True or False - the Doppler effect can be observed with light as well as sound waves
True
Sound waves are _________ waves
longitudinal
For a Doppler shift to occur, the sound source & the object must be ______ relative to each other
moving
Fractional distillation depends on the _______ _____ of each substance
boiling point
Enantiomers can be separated by introducing _____ _______
chiral compounds
Affinity chromatography is based on varying affinities for ________ _____
stationary phase
Migration in size-exclusion chromatography is based on ____ & ________ ____
size; molecular mass
In size-exclusion chromatography, _______ molecules migrate more quickly than _______ ones
larger; smaller
In gel electrophoresis, _______ molecules migrate more quickly than _______ ones
smaller; larger
The equation for electrical field is
E=V/d
Mutations to critical residues are much more likely to produce a [loss of function or gain of function]
loss of function
Enantiomers are virtually identical in all of their physical and chemical properties except for two properties which are:
they rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions (but with equal magnitude) and they react differently with certain other chiral molecules
_____ _______ is used to separate mixtures of enantiomers based on how they react with certain other chiral molecules
Chiral resolution
What are FLP?
Mixtures or compounds that contain Lewis acids
What are Brønsted-Lowry bases?
species that accept protons (ex. NH₃)
What are Brønsted-Lowry acids?
species that donate protons
What is a Lewis acid?
a compound that accepts electrons
Asparagine & glutamine are both ______ ______ _____ _____
polar uncharged amino acids
What is the 3 letter code for Asparagine?
Asn
What is the 3 letter code for Glutamine?
Gln
An increase in [H⁺] is a _______ in pH
decrease
Aspartic acid is an ______ amino acid & its side chain has a ____ group
acidic; COOH
Side chain of asparagine includes an ______ functionality
amide
D is the abbreviation for ________ ____
aspartic acid
What does pKa represent?
pH at which half of molecules of a particular species will be protonated & the other half will be deprotonated
What does the Venturi effect state?
a fluid’s velocity must increase as it passes through a constriction
According to Bernoulli principle, then, the _________ _________ must _________ to conserve energy
hydrostatic pressure; decrease
What is the equation for the decibel level of sound?
dB = 10log(I/I₀)
What is the function of fructokinase?
catalyzes phosphorylation of fructose into fructose-1-phosphate
What is starch?
a series of glucose rings linked by glycosidic bonds
In starch, only the ______ ______ carbon is available to be oxidized
terminal anomeric
Formation of a acetal disaccharide requires ____ of a molecule of water
loss
What are the units for viscosity?
Pa·s
What are the units of Pascal?
N/m²
What are the units for Newton?
kg·m/s²
x-axis is called the ________
abscissa
y-axis is called the ________
ordinate
The average kinetic energy of a sample of gas depends only on the _______ of the sample
temperature
According to kinetic molecular theory, the formula for KE of gas sample is what?
KE=(3/2)KᵦT
What is buoyancy?
the force that results from the displacement of fluid when an object is submerged
What is the relationship between buoyant force & density?
the ↑ the density, the ↑ the buoyant force
True or False: Mass differences will factor into determining the final velocities
False
kg·m/s² are units of what quantity?
force
1 liter-atmosphere is equal to _____ joules
101.33
True or False: Units of meters (m) is a base SI unit
True
True or False: Units of kilometers (km) is a base SI unit
False
In a spring, PE is ___ when fully extended or compressed
max
Once the mass is released from one end, ________ ______ is converted to ________ ______ until the mass passes through its equilibrium position (the point where potential energy of the mass/spring system rests at zero).
potential energy; kinetic energy
As the mass passes through its equilibrium position, its ________ ______ is converted back to ________ ______ as the spring compresses
kinetic energy; potential energy
What is the formula for work done on or by a gas?
W=PΔV
What is an isochoric system?
a system where volume is held constant in which no work is done
Work [on or by] the surroundings causes the gas to transfer some of its own energy to the surroundings
on
When the gas is performing work [on or by] its surroundings, it is transferring some of its own energy to those surroundings. Because the gas has lost some amount of internal energy when performing work, its temperature must have ________.
on; decreased
Sound waves are _______ waves whereas waves associated with electromagnetic radiation are ________ waves
longitudinal; transverse
Speed of sound through a medium is primarily determined by the ____ _______ of that material
bulk modulus
When stiffer materials have a higher bulk modulus, so sound moves more [slowly or quickly] through stiffer materials
quickly
What is the formula for v?
v=𝜆f
MHz is equal to how many ____ s⁻¹?
1 x 10⁶
In longitudinal waves like ultrasound, ________ particles are moving ____ ___ _____ as the wave traverses a region
physical; back-and-fourth
Waves with higher _________ are capable of causing greater ____________
amplitudes; displacement
What is the formula for velocity traveling on a pendulum?
v=√2gh
What is the formula for the period of a pendulum?
T=2π√(L/g)
Yes or No: Does the frequency of a sound wave change when it enters a new medium?
No, the frequency of a sound wave does not change when it enters a new medium
Sound generally travels [slower or faster] in solids than in air
faster
Wavelength must [increase or decrease] in response to the velocity [increasing or decreasing] when a sound wave moves into a new medium
increase; increasing
What is the decibel scale?
a logarithmic scale in which each 10 decibel interval represents one order of magnitude
40 dB difference represents a ___ difference in intensity
10⁴
A ______-____-______ frequency will be observed if the source of the sound and the observer are moving closer together overall
higher-than-actual
What is formula for the Doppler equation?
What is the formula for the electric field?
E=F/q
What is the formula for frequency?
f=c/𝜆
What corresponds to destructive interference?
half a wave difference in phase between two waves
The period has a [direct or indirect] relationship with wavelength
direct
What is the formula for period given the frequency?
T=1/f
What is the equation for determining the energy of a photon?
E=hf
What is the value of Planck’s constant?
6.626 x 10⁻³⁴ J·s
How do you determine the enthalpy for the complete combustion of one mole of a molecule?
By taking the bond energies of each individual bond in the reactants minus the bond energies of each individual bond in the product
How do you determine the enthalpy for the complete combustion of one mole of a molecule?
By taking the bond energies of each individual bond in the reactants minus the bond energies of each individual bond in the product
Bond lengths are generally [directly or inversely] related to bond energies and bond order
inversely
The higher the bond order, the [stronger or weaker] the bond & the [higher or lower] the vibrational frequency in IR spectrum
stronger; higher
What does the zeroth law of thermodynamics state?
heat energy can only spontaneously move from a high energy area (hot) to a low energy (cold)
What happens when we put work into a system?
thermal energy moves in the opposite direction
0 K is how many degrees Celsius?
-273℃
What does the third law of thermodynamics state?
the entropy of a pure, crystalline substance at 0 K is known as absolute zero
Le Chatalier’s principle states that lowering the temperature causes an exothermic reaction to shift [left or right] to release heat causing ΔS to be [positive or negative]
right; negative
How can we obtain the equilibrium constant?
by multiplying the associated equilibrium constant for the overall reaction and the inverse of Ksp
The vaporization of water is an [endothermic or exothermic] process
endothermic
How do we calculate for the heat of formation of water in the liquid and gas phases?
by subtracting the enthalpy for liquid water by the enthalpy for gaseous water
When carbonate is placed in acidic conditions, it will be converted to _______ ____, which can be broken down into ______ _______ & _____
carbonic acid; carbon dioxide; water
True or False: The change in voltage between two points does not change based on which path the current takes
True
Current flows from areas of ____ voltage to areas of ___ voltage
high; low
Le Châtelier’s principle states that a decrease in the concentration of a _______ will lead to a decrease in the concentration of reactants
product
Le Châtelier’s principle does not apply to what two phases of matter?
solids and liquids
True or False: London dispersion forces & Van der Waals’ forces refer to the same force
True
What are London dispersion forces (Van der Waals’ forces)?
forces that are caused by the interaction of dipoles which are briefly created due to the random motion of electrons
True or False: All molecules experience London dispersion forces & Van der Waals’ forces
True
What does the RHR state?
thumb points in the direction of the current & other fingers curl in the direction of magnetic field, palm will point in the direction of the force on the wire
Only the direction of the _______& _______ _____ are necessary to use RHR for Lorentz force
current; magnetic field
What types of neurons are required for measurement of the Lorentz force?
straight neurons
Electric field lines point [toward or away from] a positive ion
away from
Any form of matter has a [higher or lower] permittivity than the permittivity of free space & so any permittivity must be [positive or negative]
higher; positive
The electric field is oscillating and so must be produced by [a direct or an alternating] current
an alternating
1 MHz is how many Hz?
10⁶ Hz
What is the name of the following structure?
thioester
To qualify as an aromatic, a compound must be ______, _____, ________, and obey _____ ____
cyclic; planar; conjugated; Huckel’s rule
What is Huckel’s rule?
the molecule must have a total of 4n + 2π electrons
This picture is the structure of what molecule?
pyrrole
pyrrole is ______, _____, ________, and has _ p orbital electrons (including the lone pair on nitrogen)
cyclic; planar; conjugated; 6
D-galactose is a __ ______ of D-glucose
C4 epimer
While D-glucose has the C-H bond in the _____ position ______ the β surface, D-galactose has the C-H bond in the ________ position ______ the β surface
axial; facing; equatorial; away from
How is stereochemistry determined?
by placing the least ordered substituent facing the back, and then checking if the first three ordered substituents go clockwise (R) or counter-clockwise (S)
What is the Bohr effect?
describes how a drop in pH will result in higher levels of carbon dioxide
What are salt bridges?
electrostatic interactions between a negatively charged O atom & a positively charged H atom
True or False: Van der Waals forces are an example of electrostatic interactions involved in the secondary, tertiary, and quarternary structure of hemoglobin
True
True or False: Peptide bonds are considered a form of electrostatic interaction
False
When temperature is increased, [more or less] heat is added to the system, which shifts equilibrium away from ________ & towards ________
more; reactants; products
True or False: Pure solids are included in equilibrium constants
False, pure solids are not included in equilibrium constants
What is the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?
pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA])
Heat can be considered as a [reactant or product] for endothermic reactions
reactant
In an exergonic reaction, the reaction [releases or absorbs] energy as it proceeds, so ΔG is [positive or negative] and [spontaneous or nonspontaneous]
releases; negative; spontaneous
What is the function of the heater in ITC?
works to maintain the sample temperature between the sample cell & reference cell as the reaction occurs
What is the pH range for the indicator bromothymol blue?
6 to 7
What is the pH range for the indicator naphtholphthalein?
8
What is the equivalence point?
when the moles of acid or base added is equivalent to the moles of acid or base originally present in the solution
At what point does the pKa occur?
the half-equivalence point
What does the half-equivalence point represent?
the point at which pH=pKa and [A-]=[HA]
What is the equation for heat transfer with heat capacity?
Q=mcpΔT
What specific information does the heat equation provide?
the total amount of heat that needs to be transferred to raise the temperature a certain number of degrees Celsius back to the original temperature
What can the rate of heat transfer be used for?
to calculate the total amount of time required to transfer the total amount of heat energy
What equation can be used to determine the pKa given the Ka?
pKa=-log(Ka)
What is considered an accurate pH indicator?
has a pH range of color change that includes the equivalence point of the titration, ±1
What is considered an accurate pH indicator?
has a pH range of color change that includes the equivalence point of the titration, ±1
What is the equivalence point of a strong acid/weak base titration?
less than pH 7
What is the equivalence point of a strong acid/strong base titration?
exactly 7
What is the equivalence point of a strong base/weak acid titration?
greater than 7
What kinematic equation can be used to determine the time given the height and the mass?
Δy=v₀t+1/2at²
What is the formula for finding the force of kinetic friction?
Fr = μkFₙ
What is the power given the current and voltage?
P=IV
What is the standard work equation?
work=Fdcosθ
What are 3 ways to increase the power of a circuit?
decrease the resistance, increase the current, and decrease the temperature
1 roentgen = ? C/kg?
2.58 x 10⁻⁴ C/kg
What is the energy in the photochemical reaction ΔHᵤ?
the difference between the laser pulse energy Eₘ and the heat detected ΔHₙᵣ
What is the thin-lens equation?
How do we calculate for the kinetic energy of a photoelectron?
hf - 3.4 eV
What is the formula for weight?
W=mg
What is the formula for buoyant force?
W=rVg
The pressure in a liquid due to the gravitational force of the liquid above a given depth is ___________ to the density and the depth
proportional
What is the equation for Snell’s law?
n₁sinθ₁=n₂sinθ₂
What is the latent heat of fusion?
the amount of energy needed to convert a substance from its solid to liquid state
What is the formula used to calculate the electric field given the resistance, voltage, current, and distance separating two electrodes?
E = (V - IR)/L
What is the difference between an exothermic reaction and an exergonic reaction?
an exothermic reaction involves the loss of energy as heat whereas an exergonic reaction involves the products having a lower potential energy than the reactants
1 nm is how many meters?
1 x 10⁻⁹ m
In uniform circular motion, the kinetic energy [does or does not] change but the direction of the motion (sign of the velocity) [does or does not] change
does not; does
What is a furan?
a heterocyclic, five-membered aromatic ring with four carbon atoms and one oxygen
The color appearance of the object is in what?
the light that strikes the object and reflects back to our eye
How are covalent bonds formed?
when the two atoms involved share electrons equally
How are polar covalent bonds formed?
when electrons are shared in an unequal fashion
How are polar covalent bonds formed?
when electrons are shared in an unequal fashion
Acetic acid an -__ group, allowing it to form hydrogen bonds with similar particles
OH
Acetic acid an -__ group, allowing it to form hydrogen bonds with similar particles
OH
When does a bent geometry appear?
when a central atom is bound to two substituents while also containing two lone pairs
How would we calculate the mass of a molecule present in a metal complex?
By multiplying the number of moles of a molecule by the molar mass of that molecule
Keq is not affected by ________ changes
pressure
How is the formal charge calculated?
By subtracting the total number of valence electrons by the sum of the number of nonbonding electrons and bonding electrons
What is molarity?
Moles of solute per liter of total solution
What is mole fraction?
a measure of the moles of a relevant compound compared to the total number of moles present
Changing volume will [change or not change] the number of moles of any individual gas
not change
What is electron affinity?
an element’s desire to gain an electron
_____ _____ have no desire to gain or lose electrons
noble gases
Reactions occurring in galvanic cells are always [spontaneous or nonspontaneous]
spontaneous
Spontaneous refers to [positive or negative] Ecell values
positive
Positive cell potentials correlate to [positive or negative] ΔG values
negative
Positive cell potentials correlate to [positive or negative] ΔG values
negative
Spontaneous reactions that have negative ΔG values have K values that are [greater than, equal to, or less than] one
greater than
When writing an equilibrium constant expression, remember to disregard ____ ______ and ______
pure liquids; solids
A reduction in volume will [increase or decrease] the pressure of the system
increase
A reduction in volume will [increase or decrease] the pressure of the system
increase
When a reduction in volume increases the pressure of the system, the equilibrium will shift to the side that contains [more or fewer] moles of gas in an attempt to reestablish a stable state
fewer
Bromine needs to [gain or lose] one electron to establish a complete octet resulting in an [endothermic or exothermic process]
gain; exothermic
Bromine needs to [gain or lose] one electron to establish a complete octet resulting in an [endothermic or exothermic process]
gain; exothermic
Potassium prefers to [gain or lose] an electron to have a full octet resulting in an [endothermic or exothermic process]
lose; endothermic
What happens at equilibrium?
the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same rate
What happens at equilibrium?
the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same rate
What element is an exception to the rule that electron affinity increases as you move upwards and to the right on the periodic table?
nitrogen
Carbon has an electron configuration of [He]2s²2p², so the addition of another electron would give carbon a ____-______ orbital and is thus highly [favorable or unfavorable]
half-filled; favorable
Carbon has an electron configuration of [He]2s²2p², so the addition of another electron would give carbon a ____-______ orbital and is thus highly [favorable or unfavorable]
half-filled; favorable
Nitrogen has an electron configuration of [He]2s²2p², so addition of another electron would alter nitrogen’s half-filled valence state and produce a ______-____ orbital
partially-filled
True or False: pH can have a value that is either below 0 or above 14
True, pH can have a value that is either below 0 or above 14
True or False: pH can have a value that is either below 0 or above 14
True, pH can have a value that is either below 0 or above 14
True or False: pH can have a value that is either below 0 or above 14
True, pH can have a value that is either below 0 or above 14
What is one example of a solution that has a pH below 0 or above 14?
10 M HCl which has a pH of -1
What is one example of a solution that has a pH below 0 or above 14?
10 M HCl which has a pH of -1
HF is a [strong or weak] acid, so HF has a fairly [weak or strong] conjugate base
weak; strong
HF is a [strong or weak] acid, so HF has a fairly [weak or strong] conjugate base
weak; strong
After neutralization of HF and NaOH, the three species that will remain in solution are __, __, & ___
F⁻, Na⁺, and H₂O
The better reducing agent is always the species that is…
more likely to oxidize
The better reducing agent is always the species that is…
more likely to oxidize
What happens when zinc is oxidized?
zinc loses two electrons to become Zn²⁺
What happens when zinc is oxidized?
zinc loses two electrons to become Zn²⁺
What is molality?
moles of solute divided by kilograms of solvent
One electron from a bond and six electrons from the lone pairs forms how many electrons? What is the name of this group of elements?
7 electrons; halogens
One electron from a bond and six electrons from the lone pairs forms how many electrons? What is the name of this group of elements?
7 electrons; halogens
True or False: Molar solubility is distinct from Ksp
True
What is molar solubility?
the number of moles of a particular solid that dissociate in one liter of solution
What is molar solubility?
the number of moles of a particular solid that dissociate in one liter of solution
What is molar solubility?
the number of moles of a particular solid that dissociate in one liter of solution
Protium is the most common, well-known form of ________
hydrogen
Protium is the most common, well-known form of ________
hydrogen
Deuterium and tritium are _______ isotopes, containing _ proton and _ neutrons and _ proton and _ neutrons, respectively
hydrogen; 1; 2; 1; 3
What kind of cell uses an external power source to move electrons in a way that would be naturally nonspontaneous?
electrolytic cell
What kind of cell discharges and releases energy in a spontaneous process?
galvanic cell
What happens when two polarizing lights are oriented at a 90° angle?
no light will be able to pass through
What happens when two polarizing lights are oriented at a 90° angle?
no light will be able to pass through
What is the formula for horizontal velocity?
vₓ=vᵢcosθ
What is the formula for horizontal velocity?
vₓ=vᵢcosθ
What is the formula for the period of a pendulum?
T=2π√(L/g)
What is the formula for the period of a pendulum?
T=2π√(L/g)
What is the formula for the period of a pendulum?
T=2π√(L/g)
All mirrors or lenses with positive focal lengths represent [converging or diverging] systems
converging
All mirrors or lenses with positive focal lengths represent [converging or diverging] systems
converging
All converging mirrors are [concave or convex]
concave
All converging mirrors are [concave or convex]
concave
All converging lenses are [concave or convex]
convex
All converging lenses are [concave or convex]
convex
Convex mirrors represent [converging or diverging] systems
diverging
What is absolute pressure?
the sum of the relevant gauge and atmospheric pressures
What is absolute pressure?
the sum of the relevant gauge and atmospheric pressures
What is absolute pressure?
the sum of the relevant gauge and atmospheric pressures
In a vaccum, no atmospheric pressure is present, making Pabsolute [less than, equal to, or greater than] Pgauge
equal to
In a vaccum, no atmospheric pressure is present, making Pabsolute [less than, equal to, or greater than] Pgauge
equal to
10⁹ Watts is how many megawatts (MW)?
10³ MW
10⁹ Watts is how many megawatts (MW)?
10³ MW
Electric field lines point in the direction that a [positive or negative] particle will be pushed
positive
What is the formula for the radius of a wire?
R=⍴L/A
When the angle between the displacement and force vectors is zero, no ______ is applied to the system
torque
When the angle between the displacement and force vectors is zero, no ______ is applied to the system
torque
Magnetic fields always exert a force on a moving particle that is [parallel or perpendicular] to both the particle’s velocity and the field itself
perpendicular
Magnetic fields always exert a force on a moving particle that is [parallel or perpendicular] to both the particle’s velocity and the field itself
perpendicular
Magnetic fields always exert a force on a moving particle that is [parallel or perpendicular] to both the particle’s velocity and the field itself
perpendicular
When light travels from air into glass, it will bend [toward or away from] the normal at an angle determined by the index of refraction
toward
Which color of light has the longest wavelength of all visible light and encounters the smallest index of refraction as it passes through glass?
red light
Which color of light has the longest wavelength of all visible light and encounters the smallest index of refraction as it passes through glass?
red light
Which color of light has the longest wavelength of all visible light and encounters the smallest index of refraction as it passes through glass?
red light
What are the two main criteria that must be met for internal reflection to occur?
light must be traveling from a medium with a high index of refraction to one with a lower index, preferably with a large difference between the two and that the angle of incidence must be relatively large
What are the two main criteria that must be met for internal reflection to occur?
light must be traveling from a medium with a high index of refraction to one with a lower index, preferably with a large difference between the two and that the angle of incidence must be relatively large
The [wavelength or frequency] of light does not change when that light transitions between media
frequency
When light rays move from a material with a low index of refraction to one with a higher index of refraction, the wavelength [increases, remains constant, or decreases]
decreases
A _______ _______ image is always formed on the other side of the mirror when looking at a divergent (convex) mirror, regardless of the object’s distance from the mirror’s focal length
virtual upright
A _______ _______ image is always formed on the other side of the mirror when looking at a divergent (convex) mirror, regardless of the object’s distance from the mirror’s focal length
virtual upright
What is the formula for centripetal force?
Fcentripetal = macentripetal = mv²/R
What is the formula for centripetal force?
Fcentripetal = macentripetal = mv²/R
What kind of alcohol produces the most stable carbocation (tertiary) and consequently will most easily lose a water molecule upon protonation of the hydroxyl group in acidic media?
tert-butyl alcohol
What is the formula for Ohm’s Law?
V = IR
An input of energy can be caused by an _______ in pressure
increase
An input of energy can be caused by an _______ in pressure
increase
What is the formula to calculate the % error?
( I accepted value - experimental valueI/accepted value) x 100%
What is the formula to calculate the % error?
( I accepted value - experimental valueI/accepted value) x 100%
What is the formula to calculate the % error?
( I accepted value - experimental valueI/accepted value) x 100%
A higher _______ _____ leads to a higher boiling point
molecular weight
Acetone cannot form what kinds of bonds?
hydrogen bonds
Acetone cannot form what types of bonds?
hydrogen bonds
How many molecules of O₂ will be required for every 2 molecules of Ca?
1 molecule of O₂
How many molecules of O₂ will be required for every 2 molecules of Ca?
1 molecule of O₂
A weaker conjugate base is one that has a [larger or smaller] pKb
larger
A weaker conjugate base is one that has a [larger or smaller] pKb
larger
Ka corresponds to the ____ and the Kb corresponds to the _________ ____
acid; conjugate base
Boyle’s law states that pressure and volume are [directly or inversely] proportional
inversely
Boyle’s law states that pressure and volume are [directly or inversely] proportional
inversely
True or False: the substance will precipitate when the ion product is smaller than the Kₛₚ
False, the substance will NOT precipitate when the ion product is smaller than the Kₛₚ
ΔG has an _____ magnitude and ________ sign for the forward & reverse reactions
equal; opposite
The half-reaction that has a more positive reduction potential is where [reduction or oxidation] occurs
reduction
The half-reaction that has a more positive reduction potential is where [reduction or oxidation] occurs
reduction
As an equilibrium constant, Kₛₚ only responds to changes in _________
temperature
As an equilibrium constant, Kₛₚ only responds to changes in _________
temperature
A compound will boil when its vapor pressure is [greater than, equal to, or less than] ambient pressure to which it is exposed
equal to
Adding a vaccum to distillation apparatus dramatically [increases or decreases] ambient pressure, making compounds that typically have a higher boiling point more prone to vaporization
decreases
What type of linkage joins the two subunits of maltose?
α-1,4 linkage
Nonpolar solvents are best used for what?
monosubstitution
Polar solvents are best used for what?
polysubstitution
The glucose monomer in lactose has what kind of linkage?
ꞵ-1,4 linkage
Esters can be hydrolyzed by _____ to form carboxylic acids and alcohols
water
When hydrolyzing esters, the water acts as a __________ and attacks the _________ carbonyl carbon, breaking the bond between that carbon and the non-carbonyl oxygen
nucleophile; electrophilic
Compared to C=C bonds, C=O bonds are [lengthened or shortened] slightly due to the electronegativity of the O atom
shortened
_____ is a reducing agent & that it could turn an aldehyde into an alcohol.
NaBH₄
What kind of reaction can establish a new carbon-carbon bond?
Grignard reaction
DMSO is a _____, ______ solvent
polar, aprotic
In a polar, aprotic solvent, nucleophilicity [increases or decreases] as one moves down the periodic table
decreases
The ꞵ anomer of glucose is slightly [more or less] stable than the α anomer
more
_____ is the site of potential autocatalytic cleavage
ester
Glycogen [does or does not] have any free reducing ends
does not
A positive Tollens’ test is indicated by what?
the formation of a silver mirror, or shiny Ag precipitate
Formation of a silver mirror requires the presence of a ________ _____
reducing sugar
What are furanoses?
five-membered rings that consist of four carbon and one oxygen atom
What are pyranoses?
six-membered rings made of five carbons and one oxygen
Quinone compounds are ________
aromatic
Quinone is a highly [oxidized or reduced] compound
oxidized
Chromium trioxide is used in _________ reactions
oxidation
Esters are notably [reactive or unreactive]
unreactive
A double bond counts only as a _____ _________
single substituent
In IUPAC naming conventions, all functional groups besides the highest-priority group are listed in ____________ order with the numbered carbon to which they are attached
alphabetical
How can pH be determined given the concentration of H⁺?
pH=-log[H⁺]
What is a stereogenic carbon?
a carbon center attached to four different substituents
Electrons travel from _____ to ________ whereas current moves from ________ to _____
anode; cathode; cathode; anode
When calculating mole fraction, the denominator must include what?
all of the species present
How can we form an ideal buffer?
by obtaining equimolar amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate base
Ne is a [polar or nonpolar] molecule
nonpolar
The d subshell begins at what period?
period 4
The higher the pKa value, the [stronger or weaker] the acid
weaker
The stronger the conjugate base, the [smaller or larger] its Kb value
larger
The “ate” suffix is commonly used for what?
anions
What is the chemical formula for perchlorate?
ClO₄⁻
The anode of an electrolytic cell is [positive or negative]
positive
Positive to negative electron flow represents a [spontaneous or nonspontaneous] process
nonspontaneous
To get to the half-equivalence point, we need what?
exactly half of the volume required to neutralize the first proton
What formula can be used to calculate the volume of a molecule given the concentrations of both molecules & the volume of one molecule?
M₁V₁=M₂V₂
The 4s orbital has a [higher or lower] energy than the 3d block. So the two 4s electrons will be removed [before or after] any of the 3d electrons
higher; before
Water’s phase diagram is a slightly [positive or negative] slope of line separating solid & liquid gases
positive
Water has a solid phase that is [more or less] dense than liquid
less
Isothermal curves are generally [more or less] steeply-sloping than adiabatic curves
less
What is the formula used to solve for the boiling point elevation?
ΔTᵦ = Kᵦmi
______ _____ occurs when both the temperature and pressure of the three phases of the substance coexist in equilibrium
triple point
The following molecule is what type of acid?
dicarboxylic acid
Higher-energy bonds are [shorter or longer] and [weaker or stronger] than ones containing lower amounts of energy
shorter; stronger
What is the formula for magnetic field?
F=qvB
What is the formula for magnetic field?
F=qvB
A particle must possess both ________ & a _____ to be affected by a magnetic field
velocity; charge
Electric field sum as ______
vectors
What are the two formulas for a charge on a capacitor?
C=QV & C=kεₒA/d
The diaelectric is [directly or indirectly] proportional to the capacitance
directly
The diaelectric is [directly or indirectly] proportional to the capacitance
directly
If light is moving from a lower into a higher index of refraction, it must bend [toward or away from] the normal
toward
If light is moving from a lower into a higher index of refraction, it must bend [toward or away from] the normal
toward
The more stable the conjugate base, the [weaker or stronger] the acid
stronger
Concentration cells are a form of what type of cell?
galvanic cell
Concentration cells include the [same or different] species in both half-cells
same
In a galvanic cell, electrons move spontaneously from the _____ to the ______
anode; cathode
What types of metals are highly reactive with water?
alkali metals
Due to their extreme tendency to lose a single electron and reach a noble gas configuration, alkali metals serve as good ________ ______
reducing agents
What is the Kw expression?
Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻]
What is the Kw expression?
Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻]
What is the formula for pKw?
pKw = pH + pOH
What is the formula for Kw given the Ka and Kb?
Ka*Kb = Kw
What are the two most well-known chemical hallmarks of transition metals?
ability to possess multiple oxidation numbers and tendency to form brightly-colored compounds
What is the oxidation half of the redox reaction that represents the combination of oxygen and solid sulfur into sulfur dioxide?
S → S⁴⁺ + 4e⁻
What is the oxidation half of the redox reaction that represents the combination of oxygen and solid sulfur into sulfur dioxide?
S → S⁴⁺ + 4e⁻
What is the reduction half of the redox reaction that represents the combination of oxygen and solid sulfur into sulfur dioxide?
O₂ + 4e⁻ → 2O²⁻
Ketones mainly exert what type of intermolecular forces?
dipole-dipole interactions
The smaller the molecule, the [more or less] energy required to remove it from solution
less
Absolute zero represents a temperature of _ K, or ____ C
O K, -273℃
In neutral solution, pH is [greater than, equal to, or less than] pOH
equal to
Electrical force depends on what two factors?
the particle’s charge and the strength of the electric field experienced by the particle
Capacitance C is proportional to the _____ ____ and inversely proportional to the __________ _______ of the plates
plate area; separation distance
Ions are thousands of times [more or less] massive than the electron
more
How are isoforms produced?
alternative splicing of pre-mRNA
The ____ ________ of the gel will identify whether both or only one of the isoforms is expressed
band pattern
Enzymes with a Hill coefficient [greater than, equal to, or less than] than 1 exhibits cooperativity
greater than
Enzymes with a Hill coefficient [greater than, equal to, or less than] than 1 does not exhibit cooperativity
equal to
What is a characteristic of noncompetitive inhibitors?
they bind the enzyme and the enzyme–substrate complex with the same affinity
HCl reacts with CO₃²⁻ to form what?
CO₂(g)
If the absolute value of the work done is mgΔh where Δh is positively defined, these actions involve the [same or unequal] amount of work
same
As the object moves up and slows down, the frequency shift is [positive or negative] and _____ __ ____ at the peak of the object’s flight; as the object falls, the shift becomes increasingly [positive or negative]
negative; falls to zero; positive
What is the logarithmic form of the Ka expression?
pH = pKa + log([conj. base]/[conj. acid])
_____ catalyze the saponification of an ester
bases
Isopropyl alcohol contains how many hydroxyl groups?
one hydroxyl group
The free energy of the reaction ΔG′° is related to what equilibrium constant expression?
Keq = [ADP][Pi]/[ATP]
Co(II) is a dication and is formed from the atomic element by the loss of what?
two 4s electrons
How can the total number of molecules that were hydrolyzed be calculated?
multiply the rate in µM•s⁻¹ by the time (in seconds) and the volume of the solution (in L)
What is Kₘ?
the concentration of substrate at which the kinetics experiment reaches half the maximum velocity
1 g is how many ng?
10⁹ ng
[Aspartate or or Glutamate] has a slightly shorter chain and thus will be further from the active site
Aspartate
What type of bond links monosaccharides together in an oligosaccharide is a special type of acetal linkage?
glycoside bond
True or False: The side chain of alanine contains sites for hydrogen bonding
False, the side chain of alanine does not contain sites for hydrogen bonding
The focal length of the mirror depends only on what?
the radius of the curvature
Each light ray will refract at each surface of the lens and will increasingly diverge from the others because of the shape of each surface, so only [converging or diverging] rays can result
diverging
The two plates of the capacitor collect charges of [same or opposite] sign
opposite
As more charge arrives it is [easier or harder] to fill the plates until finally an equilibrium occurs
harder
As the capacitor discharges the voltage across it falls, thus to maintain a constant current, R must be proportionately [increased or reduced]
reduced
Auto-ionization refers to what?
dissociation into hydronium and hydroxide ions
Generation of acidic conditions in situ could be effectively prevented by the presence of ________, which forms an insoluble precipitate with chloride
pyridine
A trigonal pyramidal geometry is found in molecules where the central atom has _____ substituents and ___ lone pair of electrons
three; one
As bond order increases, bond length [shortens or lengthens] and bond energy [increases or decreases]
shortens; increases
The [cis or trans] form is better able to stack on top of like molecules
trans
Better stacking equates to [more or less] surface area over which intermolecular forces may be exerted, making the substance [more or less] difficult to melt
more; more
What are meso compounds?
symmetrical molecules with multiple chiral centers
Meso compounds [do or do not] rotate polarized light
do not
Kw is only equal to approximately 10⁻¹⁴ at ____
25℃
True or False: Concentrations of acid and conjugate base have to be equal to produce a buffer
False, concentrations of acid and conjugate base do not have to be equal to produce a buffer
What is the name of this molecule?
urea
Amides are composed of what?
a carbonyl adjacent to a nitrogen atom
Silica is a highly [polar or nonpolar] molecule
polar
The ______ plateau represents the heat of vaporization
second
In the equation, pKa + pKb = pKw, pKa represents the pKa of an ____ while the pKb represents the pKb of its _________ ____
acid; conjugate base
What is an ether?
an oxygen atom connected by single bonds to two carbon-based groups
What is an ester?
a functional group where a carbon has a double bond to an oxygen, a single bond to a carbon, and a single bond to an oxygen that is bonded to another carbon
Cyclohexane has [the same or a different] molecular formula than n-hexane and isohexane
a different
True or False: Pure water always has an equal number of hydroxide and hydrogen ions
True, pure water always has an equal number of hydroxide and hydrogen ions
Both pH and pOH [increase or decrease] when the temperature increases
decrease
What is the first ionization energy?
the energy required to remove an electron from the outer shell of an atom
For any given period, when is the first ionization energy lowest?
when the removal of the electron results in a complete shell or subshell
For any given period, when is the first ionization energy highest?
when the removal of the electron disrupts a complete shell or subshell
The hydroxide ion is one of the worst _______ ______ in substitution reactions
leaving groups
What is the formula for the number of possible peptides that contain one each of n amino acids?
n!
What is the complementary color to yellow?
purple
What is the absorbance of the color purple?
360 nm
The protonation of the oxygen atom in glucose makes this substance a [better or worse] leaving group in much the same way that protonation of an alcohol facilitates substitution of an –OH group
better
The SDS-PAGE conditions denature the protein and eliminate __________ structure
quarternary
This structure represents what?
cytosine that has been methylated at the C5 position
The use of histine tagging and a nickel column is a form of what type of chromatography?
affinity chromatography
The protein with the smallest size has the ________ electrophoretic mobility
greatest
Each mole of ____ can reduce a mole of disulfide bonds
NADH
Under what circumstances must the sum of the forces in the horizontal direction be zero?
if the horizontal component of T, T cos θ, has the same magnitude as the frictional force F.
What is the formula for determining pressure?
Pressure = (density) • g • (height)
What is the formula for Snell’s Law?
n₁sinθ₁ = n₂sinθ₂
A ray should bend [towards or away from] the normal when it enters going from a lower refractive index to a higher one
towards
How can we determine the approximate number of wavelengths of light?
by dividing the diameter by the wavelength
Phosphate is only capable of forming what two types of intermolecular interactions?
hydrogen bonds and charge-charge interactions
The tyrosine side chain contains a ______ group
phenol
The serine side chain contains a _______ group
hydroxyl
When does an aldol addition occur?
when there is no dehydration in an aldol condensation
How can one determine the charge of a battery?
by multiplying the amount of Farads by the voltage
How can one determine the energy of a battery?
by multiplying 0.5 by the amount of Farads by the voltage squared
The relative thermodynamic stability of isomers can be determined based on what?
the amount of heat produced when the compounds are combusted
The less heat there is, the [less or greater] the stability
greater
N-H sites readily exchange tritium protons due to what?
their lone pair-facilitating protonation and subsequent tritium exchange with water
True or False: The expression for ideal gas law must include the multiplication of Avogadro’s number
True
The activation energy for a reaction represents what?
the minimum energy barrier necessary to be overcome by the reactants on the path to products
What is an oxidation–reduction?
when both elements involved change oxidation states during the reaction
What are electric field lines?
lines that are equally spaced in a uniform field
What type of enzyme catalyzes this reaction?
an oxidoreductase
FAD is an example of a _____ _______
cofactor oxidant
In order to lower the pH of a buffer, the proportion of acidic buffer component must be [increased or decreased]
increased
The formation of a peptide bond is accompanied by the formation of _____ as a by-product
water
The mass of water is how many amu?
18 amu
______ is the final acquirer of electrons in the reaction and is therefore _______
oxygen; reduced
Positively charged substances are also very [hydrophilic or hydrophobic]
hydrophilic
Oxygen is a Lewis basic atom present in the side chains or backbones of the listed amino acids that has either a partially [positive or negative] charge
negative
Nitrogen is a Lewis basic atom that has a partially [positive or negative] chain in the peptide backbone due to resonance
positive
Heme is an example of a what?
a porphyrin
What is the basic unit of a porphyrin?
the pyrrole ring, which is a five-sided heterocycle containing one nitrogen atom
What type of enzyme catalyzes the hydroxylation of a methyl group?
an oxidoreductase
What is the formula for ΔG’°?
ΔG’° = −RTlnKeq([products]/[reactants])
What is pK?
the pH at which the fraction of folded DNA is 0.5
Cooperativity is measured as what?
the slope of the unfolding transition
A cation-exchange column only binds to [positively or negatively] charged proteins, which only occurs when the pH is [less than, equal to, or greater than] the pI
positively; less than
The _________ of a wave is not affected by the medium through which it propagates
frequency
What is the continuity equation if u is the speed of flow in the capillary bed?
A × v = n × a × u
a spontaneous reaction is one that exhibits ΔG being [less than, equal to, or greater than] 0, so Keq is [less than, equal to, or greater than] 1
less than; greater than
What is the formula for the weight of a water column?
the atmospheric pressure multiplied by the tube cross-sectional area A
When the acid and conjugate base concentrations are equal, the __ of a buffer equals the ___ of the acid
pH; pKa
NO₂⁻ reacts with water to form what?
OH⁻ ions
What is tautomerism?
the migration of a hydrogen atom from an α-carbon atom to an oxygen atom
Polarity in neutral molecules results from what?
uneven distribution of electron density
Uneven distribution of electron density often occurs in what two types of compounds?
in zwitterions and in ylides
Molecules that contain strongly electron-withdrawing or electron-donating substituents are highly _____ and possess correspondingly high ______ _______
polar; dipole moments
When cyclic hemiacetals and acetals are formed, the ring carbon atom derived from the carbonyl group in the open-chain form of a monosaccharide (i.e., the carbon atom that bears two oxygen substituents) is called what?
the anomeric carbon
The prefixes “α” and “β” are employed to define the stereochemistry of what bond at the anomeric carbon atom?
C-OR bond
To determine if a specific compound is an oxidizing or reducing agent, look at the _________ ______ of each individual element in the reactants and products
oxidation states
How many hydroxide ions are required to hydrolyze one ester linkage of a triacylglycerol molecule?
one hydroxide ion
A fatty acid salt contains what two things?
a long hydrocarbon chain, which is soluble in nonpolar solvents, and a charged group –CO2⁻Na⁺, which is soluble in polar solvents
The empirical formula shows what?
the lowest whole number ratio of moles of each element in a mole of the compound, or the corresponding number of atoms per molecule
How can the polarity of each of the bromomethanes be determined?
by the vector sum of all of the individual bond polarities within a given molecule of the compound
An acid differs from its conjugate base only by what?
the presence of an additional H⁺
A base differs from its conjugate acid only in what?
the lack of a single H⁺
What is the ionization potential?
the energy required to remove an electron from an atom
The reactivity of a metal depends on what?
its ionization potential
This picture is the structure of what molecule?
glycerol 3-phosphate
What types of interactions are primarily responsible for glycerol stabilization?
hydrogen bonding interactions
Residues that stabilize glycerol binding also contain functional groups that are capable of what?
forming hydrogen bonds
What does Boyle’s law state?
if the number of gas moles and the temperature is fixed, there is an inverse relationship between P and V
At standard temperature and pressure (0℃, 1 atm), 1 mole of any gas will occupy how much volume?
22.4 L
How is the partial pressure of oxygen calculated?
by multiplying the total pressure by the mole fraction of oxygen
When are deviations from ideal gas behavior maximized?
when molecular volume and/or intermolecular interactions are increased
H₂O experiences hydrogen bonding between what?
between the H donor of one water and the O acceptor of another water molecule
The following picture is the structure of what molecule?
formaldehyde
When naming nomenclature, does the aldehyde or ketone functional group have higher priority?
aldehyde
When naming nomenclature, the highest priority functional group has the [highest or lowest] possible number
lowest
Phenoxide can also be described as what?
phenolate ion
Phenoxide has how many different resonance structures?
five different resonance structures
The following reaction depicts what kind of mechanism?
hydrolysis mechanism
__________ is a very common method of activating zymogens
Hydrolysis
What role does an enol normally serve in a chemical reaction?
an enol would act as a nucleophile and attack an electrophile using its alpha carbon
What is the reactive electrophilic site on an alpha-beta unsaturated carbonyl carbon?
beta carbon
What happens when you add water to an imine or enamine?
imine or enamine will be converted back to the carbonyl
What type of reaction occurs more rapidly than any other reaction?
proton transfer reactions
All Grignard reagents function as ______ _____ and must be present __ ______ in order to successfully esterify carboxylic acids
strong bases; in excess
Double and triple bonds must contain ___ _____ ____ before they “add” bonds made from pi orbitals
one sigma bond
What is a meso compound?
compounds that have multiple chiral centers but are not optically active overall
Why can’t compounds with a single stereocenter be meso compounds?
Because meso compounds require symmetry to yield a structure that is achiral as a whole
True or False: Carbon is the only atom that can serve as a chiral center
False, carbon is not the only atom that can serve as a chiral center
What is formed from the reduction of a carbonyl group?
an alcohol
Reductive animation reactions always result in the production of what?
an amine, specifically from an aldehyde or ketone
What is formed from the reduction of an imine group?
an amine
What is chromium trioxide (CrO₃)?
a strong oxidizing agent and is reacting with a molecule that contains tertiary, secondary, and primary alcohols
This picture is the structure of what molecule?
hemiacetal group
This graph depicts what kind of relationship between f(r) and r?
f(r) = 1/r²
This picture is the structure of what type of molecule?
dipeptide
This picture is the structure of what functional group?
imide
This picture is the structure of what functional group?
primary amine
This picture is the structure of what functional group?
tertiary amine
What is the formula for mass-to-charge ratio m/z?
This compound is called what?
phosphatidyl choline
