Unit 1 study guide questions

Question 1

What is this course about?

Answer 1

This course is about the theories of communication. It is a theoretical course about theories.

Question 2

What is theory?

Answer 2

An explanation, a story, a map

Question 3

What is meta-theory?

Answer 3

A theory about theories

Question 4

Why is the fact that theory is an imperfect explanation (i.e., incomplete story) inherent to theory?

Answer 4

They are maps of the empirical world, they are imperfect abstraction. They represent the process, but they are not the process.

Question 5

Explain how the phrase, “The map is not the territory” is relevant for this class.

Answer 5

Theories are imperfect abstractions, they are maps of the empirical world, and they represent the process, but are not the process itself.

Question 6

In what sense is a theory an abstraction?

Answer 6

Theories are not what they are describing. The theory is not the communicative behavior itself but an abstract set of ideas that help us make sense of that behavior.

Question 7

Are theories perfect representations of the empirical world? Explain.

Answer 7

-No. Theories can be wrong to varying degrees.

Question 8

What are the two processes through which we build both lay and formal theories?

Answer 8

-Lay theory- all human beings are theory builders and everything we do is based on theory. (This was the example where the young child was talking about how God made everything, and that “mommy made God”) -Formal theory- You write things down, it’s way more systematic and there are processes.

Question 9

Define induction and deduction.

Answer 9

Deduction- moves from the more general to the more specific -Induction- moves from specific observations, to broader generalizations

Question 10

How do these processes of theory building connect the abstract and empirical worlds?

Answer 10

Deduction goes from abstract to empirical -Induction goes from empirical to abstract

Question 11

What do theories typically include?

Answer 11

Description of phenomena, relationships among phenomena, a story, links to the empirical world, what was seen when it was observed.

Question 12

Explain description, relationships, story and links to the empirical world.

Answer 12

-Description – Describe the phenomenon, variables, and concepts that will be discussed in the theory -Relationships – Observe relationships among the phenomena -Story – Know the underlying & abstract storyline describing mechanisms at work in the relationships -Links – Explain the links between storyline & observed phenomena (abstract & empirical), and relationships

Question 13

Distinguish between the different sorts of problems theory can address.

Answer 13

– Empirical problems – Observational problems (Anything about world in need of explanation) -Conceptual problems – Definition problems Internal – Inconsistencies needing clarification External – Conflicts with explanation provided by another theory - Practical problems – Everyday problems ( Faced by individuals & community)

Question 14

Must all good theory solve all these sorts problems?

Answer 14

no

Question 15

What other factors may we use to evaluate theory?

Answer 15

• Scope, Appropriateness, Heuristic Value, Parsimony, Validity, & Openness

Question 16

Define scope

Answer 16

Conditions theory complies with.

Question 17

How are these factors ( scope, appropriateness, heuristic value, parsimony, validity, openness) connected? Provide an example.

Answer 17

they are all questions we must ask of theory. And you might have to sacrifice some for others. For example, you might have to reduce the scope of a theory to make it valid (like if you come up with a theory and find out it only applies to a certain age group).

Question 18

Must good theory address each of these factors (scope, appropriateness, heuristic value, parsimony, validity, openness) completely?

Answer 18

No. Some things are focused on more so than others. There must be a balance of the factors.

Question 19

What are the three key areas of meta-theoretical assumptions we reviewed in class?

Answer 19

-Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology

Question 20

define appropriateness

Answer 20

Assumptions of the theory fit the objective Theories focus on some things at the expense of others

Question 21

define heuristic value

Answer 21

-Heuristic Value – Potential of a theory. Encourage making of a new theory

Question 22

define parsimony

Answer 22

• Parsimony – Is it complicated enough?

Question 23

define validity

Answer 23

-Validity – True and true about the right things Correspond with what’s important

Question 24

define openness

Answer 24

-Openness – Encourage others to improve it

Question 25

Define ontology

Answer 25

study of nature of being/reality

Question 26

define epistemology

Answer 26

nature of knowing

Question 27

define axiology

Answer 27

nature of values

Question 28

Compare and contrast realist, nominalist, and social constructionist ontological perspectives.

Answer 28

-Realists – What we see is what is -Nominalist – Things are only real because we give them meaning -Social Constructionist – World is real because of meanings we give AND because our communication/connection with others

Question 29

Compare and contrast objective and subjective notions of epistemology.

Answer 29

-Objective – Real world can be systematically known. We can measure & observe it. Faith in objective measurement. -Subjective – Real world cannot be separated from our perceptions

Question 30

How do questions of control and awareness apply to axiology?

Answer 30

-Some feel we need to control our values 100% and not allow them to influence our studies. Others believe it’s impossible to contain our values from our studies but that we should at least be aware of it. Still, others believe we can’t contain our values nor can we be aware of them. Lastly, some feel we should be aware of our values as well as use them in our studies.

Question 31

) What are the five key communication assumptions we discussed in class?

Answer 31

process, transactional, symbolic, social, intentional

Question 32

Explain how communication may be seen as process

Answer 32

Process- it happens over time, more than sending and receiving messages

Question 33

Explain how communication may be seen as transactional

Answer 33

Transactional-involves exchange, feedback, and both verbal and nonverbal cues

Question 34

Explain how communication may be seen as symbolic

Answer 34

i. Carried out using symbols ii. Simple use is somewhat arbitrary (it means what we mean it to mean) iii. We can use the same symbol and mean different things iv. Ex: history of your friend forgetting their wallet – they say “I forgot my wallet”. We interpret that as “will you buy my meal?”

Question 35

Explain how communication may be seen as social

Answer 35

Social- takes place between two or more people

Question 36

Explain how communication may be seen as intentional

Answer 36

Intentional-the things we do can communicate things that we don’t mean to happen. This is not communication because there is no transaction.

To understand intention, we have to separate the sender intention from the receiver’s view of the communication.

Question 37

How might having multiple conceptions of communication be useful?

Answer 37

You do not leave any parts out when you have multiple definitions.

Question 38

What are the ramifications of each of these for thinking about communication?

Answer 38

Process is complex and multilayered, transactional focuses our attention on context, Social says you can’t have inner monologue, intentional means that its strategic but strategic means automatic.

Question 39

What is the difference between sender intention and receiver inference about intention? What does it mean to say that communication is primarily automatic but strategic?).

Answer 39

Most of the time we have some goal and our minds just creates some floe of talk that automatically helps us get our goals across.

Question 40

What are the two main questions/problems in understanding developing relationships?

Answer 40

why do some relationships develop from a first meeting where as others do not? How does this development take place? How does this happen communicatively.

Question 41

Explain social penetration theory (SPT).

Answer 41

story of why some relationships develop and how. Thinks of relationships as increasing in intimacy or decreasing: onion model= as a relationship develop you go deeper in layers

Question 42

What are the four stages of relationship development?

Answer 42

Orientation, exploratory affective exchange, affective exchange, stable exchange

Question 43

What is the primary mechanism through which we progress through these stages?

Answer 43

disclosure

Question 44

What is the paradox of small talk?

Answer 44

we don’t place a lot of value on small talk but its ubiquitous and we do it all the time

Question 45

Why is small talk important?

Answer 45

• trivial talk yet we do it a lot • about 2/3rd of the time were communicating we are engaged in small talk • as relationships became more intimate so did the trivial talk • essential for relationship building • use it to see if we want to be friends with this person • if you’re good at it you can put people at ease and fit in, show you’re poise. • its phatic communication: talk for talks sake

Question 46

What is trivial talk?

Answer 46

the same as small talk

Question 47

Typically, how much of our talk is “trivial” across all sorts of different relationships?

Answer 47

2/3rds of the time we talk its trivial talk.

Question 48

How does the makeup of trivial talk in relationships change as they develop?

Answer 48

as relationships became more intimate so did the trivial talk

Question 49

Why is small talk needed for relationship development? Put another way, how is it like an audition?

Answer 49

We learn a lot in the first few moments so it helps us see if we want to continue our friendship with that person.

Question 50

In what sense is small talk phatic communication?

Answer 50

It’s just talk for talk’s sake.

Question 51

How would SPT explain Charlotte’s missteps at the party?

Answer 51

Charlotte became too intimate too quickly and she skipped the first steps in SPT.

Question 52

Explain the recommendations can we make for small talk given SPT

Answer 52

• increase topic intimacy gradually o not too fast • break the rules, so when the moment is right you have to increase topic intimacy o we learn a lot about the other in the first moments • give and use free info: give the person you’re talking to a hook to ease small talk and increase topic intimacy gradually • show interest in the other person • share the floor: GIving equal amount of time to speak (example in class where the interactants who talk 20% and 80% vs the ones who shared the floor and talked 50 50.)

Question 53

Explain the two criticisms of SPT we emphasized?

Answer 53

1. Sometimes we stay in relationships without rational reasons to continue the relationship. Maybe the reasons are irrational. Maybe we are not always making conscious decisions all the time about our relationships. a. It over simplifies our choice to stay in a relationship 2. Its too liner . Relationships are much more complicated than the 4 stages.. There is much more going on.

Question 54

How does Relational Dialectics (RD) attempt to address the criticisms of SPT?

Answer 54

• Relational Dialectic Theory was created to address the messiness of relationships. The part that is over simplified in SPT. It is not meant to study the general which is broad

Question 55

What does it mean to say that relationships are messy?

Answer 55

• The point is not to explain the general (the mean in the bell curve). The messiness is the outliers in the bell curve. The weird stuff that happens in particular relationships.

Question 56

How does the scope of RD differ from SPT?

Answer 56

• Instead of following a linear model of reciprocating of disclosure (SPT). RD case relationships as messy ongoing negotiations.

Question 57

What is a dialectic?

Answer 57

Inherent tensions in relationships (by their very nature). All relationships have tensions. The dialectic (a particular dialectic) is a pair of ideals that contradict creating tension

Question 58

What does it mean to say that the relationship is the tension?

Answer 58

• In relationships there are competing ideals that contradict one another. The patterns in relationship behavior is the people trying to deal with these contradictions that create tension. The whole relationships is built on managing the tensions. The management is never done until the relationship is over.

Question 59

Are dialectics always managed in the same way in a relationship overtime?

Answer 59

• No, they vary over time. They are never negotiated in the same way. The are managed in communication and patterns of PRAXIS.

Question 60

Must a dialectic be solved completely for a relationship to be functional?

Answer 60

• No, but they have to be managed

Question 61

What are the key internal dialectics?

Answer 61

• Connection-Autonomy o The pole of being a couple Vs. being an individual. • In a relationship, we want both. A balance. To keep who we are as a couple and as an individual. • Certainty- Uncertainty o We need to know what to expect in relationships. But we also want the novelty of uncertainty. • Openness- Closedness o Sometimes we want to tell our relationships more and sometimes less. Sometime is good for the relationships to share more and sometimes to share less.

Question 62

What does it mean to say that they are internal dialectics?

Answer 62

• Internal dialectics is the negotiations going on inside the relationships between the partners.

Question 63

What are the key external dialectics?

Answer 63

• Inclusion-Seclusion • Conventionality-Uniqueness • Revelation-Concealment

Question 64

What does it mean to say that they are external dialectics?

Answer 64

• External dialectics is how the relationship partners are negotiating the boundaries between the relationship outside larger community.

Question 65

What is the hypodermic needle model of communication?

Answer 65

an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver

Question 66

Explain the SMCR model of communication.

Answer 66

SMCR: Source-message-channel-receiver

It is a communication process as a straightforward activity of transmission through a singular circuit. Mainly linear questions such as; Who? Says What? To Whom? Through what channel? With what effect? Only a source to receiver communication.

Question 67

What is the relevance of the quote “one cannot not communicate” for communication research?

Answer 67

Whether communicating intentionally or not, meaning is inherent in all human behavior

Question 68

Yang, Yang, and Chiou (2010)
1. What were the methods of the study? What did the participants do? (page 3)

Answer 68

The adolescent participant population was stratified into three demographic areas: Northern, Central, and Southern Taiwan. Participants read a paper of agreement which also informed them of the importance of this research and were then asked to rate their willingness to make sexual self-disclosures in both real life and cyberspace, in the contexts of varying degrees of relationship intimacy and different sexual topics.

Question 69

Yang, Yang, and Chiou (2010)

Did the participants’ level of sexual disclosure with their interactive partners parallel relationship intimacy in real life?

Answer 69

Both male and female adolescents showed that the link of relationship intimacy with willingness to communicate sexual disclosure in real life, supporting the hypothesis from the social penetration model.

Question 70

Yang, Yang, and Chiou (2010)

Both male and female adolescents showed that the link of relationship intimacy with willingness to communicate sexual disclosure in real life, supporting the hypothesis from the social penetration model.
3. Did that change in cyberspace?

Answer 70

Yes, males were more comfortable with the exchange of sexual disclosure at all levels of relationships, and women experienced a “U” shaped willingness to disclose sexual information (they were very willingto disclose to people they knew very little and to people they knew extremely well, but were not as willingot disclose to people in the middle–people they knew kind of, but not very well)

Question 71

Yang, Yang, and Chiou (2010)

Were the results as a whole consistent or inconsistent with social penetration theory?

Answer 71

consistent

Question 72

104 Baxter and Erbert (1999)

1. What is a turning point?

Answer 72

Any point in a relationship in which the relationship changes either positively or negatively.
A useful empirical site in which to find dialectical contradictions in developing relationships
a transformative event in which the realtionship is changed in some way either positivley or negatively

Question 73

– 104 Baxter and Erbert (1999)

Does the study use research questions or hypotheses? List it/them.

Answer 73

Question: How do the six dialectics of RDT affect turning points of relationships between heterosexual couples?

Question 74

104 Baxter and Erbert (1999)

Was the coding scheme they used to categorize turning points grounded in a theory of turning points or the data in the study? (Hint: Did they modify the coding scheme based on these particular data?)

Answer 74

Turning points were coded using a modification of the turning point scheme: network interaction, conflict, relationship talk.

Question 75

104 Baxter and Erbert (1999)

Overall, were internal or external dialectics/contradictions more important?

Answer 75

internal dialectics

Question 76

Which turning point did not fit this pattern?

104 Baxter and Erbert (1999)

Answer 76

network interaction (focus on external dialectic of inclusion-seclusion)

Question 77

104 Baxter and Erbert (1999)

Which internal dialectic/contradiction(s) were most important or central?

Answer 77

autonomy-connection and openness-closedness

Question 78

105 Kramer (2013)

1. What were the study’s methods? What did participants do?

Answer 78

The participants were asked to answer a questionnaire about their experiences and feelings toward the choir experience. the questionnaire being the method.

Question 79

Did the dialectics/contradictions manifest themselves in the same ways for all the turning points?

104 Baxter and Erbert (1999)

Answer 79

they manifested themselves all in different types

Question 80

2. How did hypotheses 1 and 4 reflect the axioms of URT? Were they supported or refuted?

105 Kramer (2013)

Answer 80

Hypothesis 1: If choir members have greater task-based interactions with the choir director, and greater social-based interactions with their peers, they will have higher satisfaction. This supports URT because more interaction means less uncertainty, which means greater satisfaction.

Hypothesis 4: Volunteers will have higher satisfaction when they have less uncertainty about their tasks within the group. Once again, decreased uncertainty means higher satisfaction.

Both hypotheses were supported by the study

Question 81

3. Given these results, if a choir member had high task-related leadership communication and social-related peer communication, would their satisfaction be more likely to be relatively higher or lower.

105 Kramer (2013)

Answer 81

higher

Question 82

106 Barbour (2012)
 1. What were the methods of the study? What did participants do?

Answer 82

recruits for a questionnaire with two scenarios, 1.

Question 83

Why is studying first meetings is important?

Answer 83

they are ubiquitous(we do it alot) and small talk is important for relationship building.
First meetings lead to relationships, and relationships are proven to make you healthier.
-Some people report having a difficult time with first meetings, whereas others can grow lifelong relationships from them. So it’s obvious that first meetings CAN lead to relationships, but they don’t always. Why is that?
-First meetings can explain why relationships form or do not form, and are necessary for “auditioning” people for friendship.

Question 84

What does the existence (and commercial success) of recipes for communication or cookbooks for communication (e.g., “50 never fail opening lines”) suggest about first meetings?

Answer 84

That most people have trouble/struggle with them, and that they care enough about it to not only create the recipes, but for people to buy them, we attach some importance to them.

Question 85

• -inclusion/seclusion

Answer 85

whether the couple wants to spend time alone vs with others.
o Example: watching a movie at home vs going on a double date.
o A friend of yours falls in love and then disappears. They seclude you and everyone not in the relationship. Other times when you need to bring others in.

Question 86

Conventionality vs Uniqueness

Answer 86

Whether the couple identifies themselves as traditional or unique.
o Example: Whether the relationship will follow traditional gender roles or not or the fact we want our relationship to similar to other relationships in society, in our church, that we are familiar with. We want them to be conventional, but we want them to be uniquely our own.

Question 87

Revelation vs Concealment

Answer 87

what a couple wants to share with others and what you want to keep to yourself.
o Example: When the couple gets pregnant, and you are deciding who to share the news with right away
o Homer teaching a college course about his family’s secret information such as the fact that Marge dyes her hair.

Question 88

What are the praxis patterns offered by RD theorists?

Answer 88

1. denial,
2. disorientation,
3. spiraling inversion,
4. segmentation,
5. balance,
6. integration,
7. recalibration,
8. reaffirmation

Question 89

• Denial-

Answer 89

DYSFUNCTIONAL. relationship ignores the dialectic. Responding to one side and ignoring the other side all together
o Example: Homer is only interested in his class, not interested in concealment, disastrous results.

Question 90

• Disorientation

Answer 90

DYSFUNCTIONAL. Instead of denying they become overwhelmed by them and take no action at all. The competing demands of the contradiction have become overwhelming. Marked by paralysis and inaction due to too many competing needs.

Question 91

• Spiraling inversion

Answer 91

Functional. Participants negotiate the tension or contradictions over time. Over time the relationship swings back and forth. Sometime attending to one end of the dialectic and then we come back to the other. However, if you don’t actually swing back and forth, this can become denial.
o EX: This weekend we will go out with your friends and next weekend we will stay home and watch movies. (Inclusion/Seclusion)

Question 92

• Segmentation

Answer 92

Functional. Focuses on topic rather than time in spiraling inversion. For different situations for different topics and issues the partners solve the dialectic differently.
o EX: Okay to share how the kids are doing in school but not okay to tell them she dyes her hair in Simpsons. In every episode a choice is being made.

Question 93

Balance-

Answer 93

Have cake and eat it too. A compromise approach. Try to do both at once. Not doing either completely.
o EX: A friend falls in love and then they disappear—ignoring any need for including relationships outside that particular relationship. The Holidays roll around and they decide they are still in this seclusion part of their relationship but they need to visit their families, but not for very long. Scholars recognize that trying for balance, it satisfies neither of the contradiction completely, it can backfire. Problematic because satisfies neither completely.

Question 94

• Integration

Answer 94

• Have cake and eat it too. You have a pattern that really does serve all aspects of the contradictions at once. Difficult to do because it requires addressing two contradictory ideas completely. Most people aim for integration and end up with balance.
  o EX: Married couple has one rule, every Friday night (Certainty) they are going to try something new. (Uncertainty) In this relational agreement there is something that is approaching integration. It’s certain, yet novel.

Question 95

• Recalibration-

Answer 95

Focus on different ways that the partners are aware of the dialectic itself. Relationship participants reframe the dialectic so that there is no contradiction.
o EX: If your partner is acting distant, you might re-label this lack of connection as their stubbornness, or just the way they communicate. May give you comfort. Parents driving around, both are so different, one really values certainty, and the other values uncertainty. Certainty reframes it and says “This is just how he shows that he loves me.”

Question 96

• Reaffirmation

Answer 96

Focus on different ways that the partners are aware of the dialectic itself. There meta-communicating about the dialectic itself. Acknowledge together that the need for both dialectics are there. Idea that the relationship is aware that the tension exist.

Question 97

Are all the praxis patterns functional (i.e., good for relationships)?

Answer 97

No. Denial and Disorientation are dysfunctional.

Question 98

Which praxis patterns involve a choice between one end of a dialectic over another (e.g., over time or topic or permanently)?

Answer 98

Denial (permanent choice), Spiraling Inversion (temporary choice) and Segmentation (choice per topic)

Question 99

Which praxis patterns involve trying to achieve all aspects of the dialect at once?

Answer 99

Balance and Integration (Have your cake and eat it too)

Question 100

Are the praxis patterns mutually exclusive?

Answer 100

• NO
• Sometimes you use multiple praxis patterns to deal with an issue, or will use one praxis pattern in order to use another (ie. you might engage in reaffirmation in order to find a way to integrate)

Question 101

Why is disclosure important?

Answer 101

It helps us decide whether we want to continue the relationship.

• It is also linked to liking–we like the people we disclose to and disclose to those we like.
• Disclosure also makes you healthier–having just one confidant can make you healthy (experiment conducted where people were made sick and only 50% were allowed to have contact with the outside world. The ones who could talk were physically better than the others.)

Question 102

Explain ways disclosure can vary.

Answer 102

-Vary in depth / Intimacy level / Breadth
-Positive or Negative
- Incomplete or Insincere rather than Complete & Honest
(but remember that ALL disclosures are VOLUNTARY and INTENTIONAL)

Question 103

According to RDT, is more disclosure necessarily a good thing? How about SPT?

Answer 103

In SPT its always a good thing, because you constantly want more intimacy.
-In RDT we have different needs for openness and closedness, disclosure is not always a good thing…sometimes we want or need to be closed…but for SPT if our goal is to move a relationship forward, disclosure is always a good thing

Question 104

What dialectic can be used to manage disclosure decisions?

Answer 104

-Openness/closedness

Question 105

Are negative disclosures always bad in relationships?

Answer 105

• - No, they can have positive effects
o Example: The clip the Breakfast Club where Emilio Estevez shares a negative disclosure and he is not regarded badly and the reactions of the other are not negative.
o It depends on the specific relationship, though. Only relationships where the connection is strong enough can survive negative disclosures.

Question 106

Compare and contrast social penetration theory and relational dialectics theory (e.g., scope, parsimony, heuristic value, validity).

Answer 106

-RDT covers all areas of a relationship so its scope is not as narrow as RDT, SPT-is trying to give you universal laws for relationships while RDT-is trying to hone in a particular attention to a particular situation
• SPT is how relationships are set up from first meetings, where RDT is the broader view of relationships.
SPT has heuristic value because it GAVE RISE to RDT.
Where parsimony is concerned, SPT is more simple (it doesn’t have RDT’s list of dialectics and praxis patterns), but might be too simple (in that it doesn’t explain all the messiness of relationships).

Question 107

Which one is better?

social penetration theory and relational dialectics theory

Answer 107

It depends on the particular problem or situation you’re trying to address

Question 108

How are the goals of the theories similar, and how are they different?

social penetration theory and relational dialectics theory

Answer 108

-SPT is about predicting whether a relationship will move forward or not and what will happen at each stage…RD is about describing accurately what is happening not what WILL, tries to capture all the messiness. Both have to do with explaining the development of relationships, but SPT is concerned with creating rules and stages, whereas RDT just wants to give you some of the possible problems and solutions used in developing relationships. SPT focuses on that relationships in GENERAL do, but RDT asks “whatis happening in THIS specific relationship?”

Question 109

What is the scope of Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT)?

Answer 109

-It is focused specifically on first meetings
• When strangers meet, the main thing they want to do is reduce uncertainty about each other.

Question 110

What is the central idea in URT?

Answer 110

What happens as a result of first meetings
• We are motivated to make sense of what the other person is doing/behavior. Want to predict what they are going to do next. Interpersonal ignorance is not bliss, it’s frustrating according to this theory.

Question 111

What does it mean to say that we want to reduce uncertainty about our relational partners?

Answer 111

-When you meet someone you want to make sense of what they’re doing and predict what they’re going to do and be able to predict what they will do.

Question 112

Explain three factors that heighten our motivation to reduce uncertainty in initial encounters?

Answer 112

• “Do you anticipate future interaction”
o If you think you will be seeing the person again, your desire to reduce uncertainty will be heightened.
• “Incentive value: the person has something you want or you need”
• “Deviance: they act weird”
o If they act strangely, that will heighten your desire to reduce uncertainty

Question 113

Explain the 7 axioms established by URT.

Answer 113

• Verbal Communication (-)
o We will communicate verbally with each other to reduce uncertainty
o The more we reduce uncertainty, the more we communicate verbally
o As uncertainty is high, verbal communication is low
• Nonverbal Expressiveness (-)
o As we reduce uncertainty, we will be more non verbally expressive
o If nonverbal expressiveness is high, uncertainty is low
o EX: Smiling, body language, eye contact
• Information Seeking (+)
o To reduce uncertainty we seek information.
o As uncertainty is high, information seeking is high.
o The more uncertain we are the more information seeking we do.
• Intimacy (-)
o As uncertainty is high, intimacy is low.
o More uncertainty means you’re not going to be very intimate.
• Reciprocity (+)
o The practice of exchanging things with others mutual benefit.
o “If you tell me about your major, I’ll tell you about my major.”
• Similarities (-)
o The more alike we find ourselves to be, the less uncertainty we will experience
• Liking (-)
o When uncertainty is high, liking is low
o Do you like the person?

Question 114

Explain the shorthand we discussed for understanding the relationships between uncertainty and other factors in each axiom (i.e., positive versus negative relationships)

Answer 114

-Axioms with a (-) mean that the relationship between uncertainty and that variable is INVERSE, meaning that as one goes up, the other goes down. Axioms that are (+) mean that the relationships is positive, meaning that as uncertainty goes up, that variable also increases.

Question 115

How can these axioms be used to create theorems?

Answer 115

-You can combine the signs of axioms to create theorems. Say you want to relate liking to similarity (create a theorem that connects liking to similarity) . You would say that liking has a (-) relationship with uncertainty and so does similarity. A negative times a negative is a positive, so the relationship between liking and similarity will be positive, meaning that if liking is high, then similarity is high.

Liking x Similarity = Theorum
(-) x (-) = (+) relationships between liking and similarity

Question 116

Are all these theorems sensible?

Answer 116

No they are not, These theorems can be combined together and are interchangeably related

Question 117

What criticisms have been leveled against URT?

Answer 117

• The theory isn’t complete enough, and doesn’t give details are to how the behaviors will be performed.
o Doesn’t always work especially with initial interactions
o Does not have culture as an element.
o Only works for first meetings
o Doesn’t define things like “information seeking” in depth
• It’s definition and understanding of uncertainty is inherently wrong/too simple. It doesn’t take into account our emotional reactions to uncertainty. Only sees uncertainty as NEGATIVE, when sometimes it can be POSITIVE.

Question 118

How have theorists attempted to answer these criticisms?

Answer 118

They have tried to apply the theory to different types of relationships, different stages of relationships, and to different cultures. They have attempted to view the theory through different contexts and situations, or have tried to define the axioms in more depth.

Question 119

Are all the criticisms fair? Explain.

Answer 119

No. The criticism that the theory is incomplete is not fair. The theory states right off the bat that it is only concerned with first meetings, so to try to apply it to other situations is not fair

Question 120

What three ideas does UMT emphasize about the communicative management of uncertainty?

Answer 120

The way we act towards the uncertainty is determined how we appraise it.
2. We manage our uncertainty through communication.
3. Management can include reducing, maintaining, or even increasing uncertainty .
*UMT is applied to many different types of contexts, tries to explain any time we experience uncertainty.

Question 121

Explain how uncertainty can come from a variety of sources. Provide example

Answer 121

Sources of Uncertainty-
• the need for information, which causes them to feel uncertain.
• Having information can also be a source of uncertainty (conflicting).
• Life is probabilistic, we can’t ever be 100% sure something is going to happen.
• Communication itself can be a source of uncertainty; it can come from a variety of different sources. (Relationships themselves are uncertain and any communication in a relationships will be uncertain).

Question 122

Does getting information always reduce uncertainty?

Answer 122

-No. It might complicate our understanding of a situations.. We might get contradictory information or too much information to think clearly.

Question 123

Can uncertainty in relationships be reduced completely?

Answer 123

-No, Uncertainty is inherent to relationships.

Question 124

What is an appraisal?

Answer 124

There is an emotional component and cognitive/ thinking significance
• Appraisals can be negotiated with others through communication
• Appraisals can be internal as well.

Question 125

How do relevance, congruence, and coping skills play into appraisals?

Answer 125

. The relevance of the appraisal, is it relevant to you and your goals?

2. The congruency, how does it fit into your goals? (Not the thing you are uncertain about, but the uncertainty itself).
3. Your coping skills, your ability to cope with the uncertainty.

Question 126

Provide examples of the different sorts of emotional reactions to uncertainty

Answer 126

• Negative (anxiety or fear)
• Positive (excitement, or maintain hope)
• Neutral (no emotional appeal–this occurs when the uncertainty is not RELEVANT to us).
• Combined (both positive and negative)

Question 127

What is a danger appraisal?

Answer 127

-Incongruent, characterized by goal relevance, goal incongruity and usually/not always involves negative reactions. The uncertainty is relevant to you, incongruent with your goals and you have negative reactions to your theory. Danger appraisals don’t have to be 100% negative, only have a PREPONDERANCE of negative emotional reaction.

Question 128

What is an opportunity appraisal?

Answer 128

-It is goal relevant, goal congruent (the uncertainty is seen as congruent with your goals), and positive emotion reactions. These kinds of uncertainty give us hope or make us excited (having a crush). These don’t have to be 100% positive, only have a PREPONDERANCE of positive emotional reaction.

Question 129

) What predictions does UMT make about the connection between appraisals of uncertainty and the communicative management of uncertainty?

Answer 129

• Can be active (Ask people questions)
• Can be passive (Seek to observe information)
• To maintain or increase uncertainty, people can avoid information
• Intentional forgetting is used to avoid uncertainty
• People will also use information seeking and avoiding to increase uncertainty.
o (Ex. Second opinion from a different doctor)
• UMT says that if we view uncertainty as a DANGER APPRAISAL, then the communication techniques we will use will be focused on decreasing uncertainty. If we view the uncertainty as an OPPORTUNITY APPRAISAL, we will either try to increase or maintain our uncertainty. UMT tries to predict what communication behaviors we will use based on our appraisal of uncertainty.

Question 130

What is the principal question we’re trying to answer in our study of discourse and interaction?

Answer 130

-“How do we know what things mean in communication?”

Question 131

Explain the distinction between verbal and nonverbal behavior (NVB).

Answer 131

-The phrase nonverbal behavior can encompass a lot of stuff. It’s everything that doesn’t involve language

Question 132

Provide and explain examples of NVBs including paralanguage, body motion, appearance, and the use of space.

Answer 132

• Paralanguage- (nonverbal cues) when we speak, volume, speed, pitch and tone)
o Example: With varying Volume, I can communicate something completely different with the same set of language. Also can change intonation. Remember “He’s giving THIS money to Bob,” “He’s giving this money to BOB?”
• Think of sarcasm. Sarcasm doesn’t work without intonation
• Body Motion- (kinesics) eye contact, posture,
• Appearance- Things we notice about the body in STASIS. Includes things like height, weight, things we don’t necessarily have control over. Skin color. Clothing, perfume. Not movement, but they still have consequences in Nonverbal communication.
• Use of Space- (proxemics) how close is too close Ex: bathroom etiquette
o Example: Interpersonal distance. How close people are in differing circumstances. Maybe someone has been too close to you? Maybe they are a close talker? How close, is too close? It depends on a lot of factors like the intimacy of the relationship, context. How close you are in a grocery line, is different than how close you stand next to each other in the bathroom. It’s about our perception and our use of space.
o Sitting in a movie theater that’s completely empty except you. Someone sits right next to you. Do you get up and leave? It would be weird, it would be a violation of what your expectations are.

Question 133

Do NVBs have specific meanings?

Answer 133

No! There are some nonverbal behaviors that have universal meanings (eyebrow flash)

Question 134

Is context important for understanding NVB? Explain

Answer 134

• Yes.You cannot divorce a nonverbal from its context. If you flash your eyebrows at someone in America, it’s simply a greeting. If you flash your eyebrows at someone in the East, while it is still considered a greeting, it is read as a LEWD greeting, implying the desire for a sexual encounter.

Question 135

Are there universal NVBs? If so, is context irrelevant in those cases?

Answer 135

• Yes, for example flashing eyebrows and facial expressions
• The research that’s established that universal is not culturally specific.
o Universal greeting: Eyebrow flash. UNIVERSAL ELEMENTS: The intimacy implied by that flash is different. In some places it’s lewd. In America we do it to just about anyone.

Question 136

Are all nonverbal behaviors communication?

Answer 136

• Not all non verbals are communication
• Example: Sitting in a chair and you’re leaning back. Someone starts putting their hands in their mouth…(DENTIST)

Question 137

Can the meaning of particular NVBs be explained in isolation from other NVBs? Explain

Answer 137

• No. NVBs occur in clusters. If you try to separate a NVB from the cluster, then you are not getting a complete picture of the situation.
• We can’t study nonverbals in isolation. We must think of them as clusters.
o Example: Secret service agents could guess 85% of the time correct if people were right. Most guessed 50/50. They look for clusters. They don’t look for just one thing.
• You can’t look at a nonverbal in isolation, deciphering what a nonverbal message means is not simple

Question 138

Do we tend to be good or bad at understanding nonverbal communication?

Answer 138

• We tend to be good (except for when it comes to deception).

Question 139

Are we on the whole good detectors of deception?

Answer 139

no

Question 140

How would you explain the fact that we tend to be good at using nonverbal generally but not detecting deception specifically?

Answer 140

• Deception is very complicated and it requires us to look at the whole cluster of nonverbals. Also, NVBs give us hints as to the emotional state of a person, but not really WHY they are feeling that way, so sometimes we may be able to tell that someone is uncomfortable, but we cannot read NVBs with enough complexity to know whether or not they are uncomfortable because they are being deceptive.

Question 141

What is an expectancy? Provide examples.

Answer 141

• We communicate with an expectation of what’s going to happen. Expectancies involve a range of behaviors.
• Explains how we make sense of interaction, in particular nonverbals, by focusing on situations that are odd.
• When you communicate with someone you have preconceived notions of how the interaction is going to go.
o They are based on who the people interacting are, what the relationship between them are, what the context is.
• Pays particular attention to when preconceived notions are violated!!!!
• These expectancies come from social norms, culture.
o Example: In America, we generally have a spatial expectancy that people will stay around 8 feet away from us when in conversation
o Example: In Western societies and eye contact. There isn’t a particular moment. 5 seconds is wayyyy too long. It’s about 30 microseconds. But it’s a range!

Question 142

Where do we get our expectancies as communicators?

Answer 142

• 1. Who the communicators are
• 2. What the relationship is
• 3. What the context.
• Also informed by culture and society

Question 143

What does it mean to say that expectancies apply to ranges of communication behavior?

Answer 143

• You can react in different ways, such as reciprocation and compensation.
• Also, expectancies occur over a range, not a definitive line. So our personal space bubble is generally 8 feet, but if you are one inch closer or one inch further than eight feet away, it’s not a big deal–our expectancies cover a range (8 feet, give or take a few) and are not cut and dry.

Question 144

How might personal space expectations be influenced by context?

Answer 144

• An expectancy violation would be some noticeable change in immediacy behaviors. EX: Seinfeld clip of Aaron the “Close Talker”. Also, we might not mind if someone is really close to us if we are in crowded elevator, but in an empty room, it would be weird to have someone walk in and stand right up against us.

Question 145

What is an expectancy violation?

Answer 145

An expectancy violation would be some noticeable change in immediacy behaviors; a violation of the preconceived notion of how participants will act at a certain level of connectedness or intimacy

Question 146

What do we do when our expectancies are violated?

Answer 146

• Reciprocation- Refers to matching the immediacy behaviors.
• Compensation- We contradict the immediacy behaviors in some way.
• Three steps:
o 1. We NOTICE
o 2. We EVALUATE
o 3. We are AROUSED physically by the violation

Question 147

What is immediacy? Provide an example of an immediacy violation.

Answer 147

• An immediacy is a cluster of NVBs that indicate the level of connection between participants.
• Immediacy Violations are important in communication because they help us signal and recognize changes such as from the past and changes in the identity we are trying to project, and changes in the relationship.
• An immediacy violation might occur when someone stands too close to you or treats you too intimately when you don’t know them that well.
• Example: trained a man to say the same thing every time and is supposed to hit on 120 women. Half he touched the arm, and half the case he didn’t. They replicated this on the street.

Question 148

Broadly, what are two sorts of reactions we have to immediacy violations? Provide examples.

Answer 148

• If the response we see is reciprocation we will see a matching. This doesn’t have to occur in the same specific channel or nonverbal, ie. if someone touches us, we don’t have to touch them back to reciprocate. We may just step closer or orient our bodies toward them as an act of “matching.”
• Reciprocation: We tend to behave in a way that reinforces the violation. So if someone touches us intimately, we might maintain eye contact or lean in closer to show approval of the violation.
• Compensation: We react negatively to the violation and try to compensate by reacting in the opposite. So if someone stands really close to us in an elevator, we might step back if we can, or look down at our phones.

Question 149

Relationships factors:

Answer 149

What is our relationship and what is expected of people with our kind of relationship. So if you are in a new relationship with someone and they kiss you in public, even though you might view that as a violation of immediacy, since you are in a romantic relationship you might be expected to reciprocate.

Question 150

• Situational factors:

Answer 150

What is the situation? I might not normally greet someone with a hug, but at a family Christmas party this might be expected in the situation.

Question 151

• Cultural norms factors

Answer 151

What does my culture say about the way I should react? In some cultures, touching is not a big deal, while in others it is.

Question 152

• Communication Valency

Answer 152

Will I potentially get something out of reciprocating this violation? People of higher status, or whom we are attracted to, are more likely to get us to reciprocate. This is why sexual harassment is such a problem in offices–women will reciprocate the violations of a superior because the benefit (not getting fired) outweighs the cost (of possibly getting fired).

Question 153

What is the central premise of communication accommodation theory (CAT)?

Answer 153

• The central premise is that people are naturally accommodating and cooperative in their communication with each other. This idea makes lying possible (because we generally just assume people are cooperating with us and telling the truth), and also makes communication easier.
• Cooperative principle: We want to be understood and we want to understand. This assumption undergirds all of our interaction. Put another way, accommodation refers to the basic idea that in our communication we try to be cooperative. We try to adapt to our listener.

Question 154

According to CAT, what three patterns of communication are relevant in the study of accommodation?

Answer 154

• Convergence, Divergence, and Maintenance patterns

Question 155

Convergence-

Answer 155

the interaction partners will become increasingly similar in their actions, this is the essence of accommodation. It has been documented with lots of different communication theory, speech rate, pauses, the use of jokes, head nodding, posture. Way of accommodating to other listeners. A growing similarity of interactants. Acting in similar ways with interacting partners. Accent matching with someone British, etc.

Question 156

• Divergence

Answer 156

we see people becoming increasingly different in their communication patterns.
o Ex: Study set up between Englishmen and Welshmen, where the English. Usually used to prove that you are DIFFERENT from someone else–make a distinction.

Question 157

• Maintenance Patterns

Answer 157

no noticeable convergence or divergence occurs.

Question 158

Explain the characteristics of these patterns that we discussed in class (e.g., upward versus downward, full versus partial versus hyper, unimodal versus multimodal, symmetrical versus asymmetrical, subjective versus objective).

Answer 158

• Upwards versus downward:
o Patterns can shift up towards social norms, they can also shift down away from social norms.
o A shift upwards would include using polite language, becoming more proper in posture, or not using slang.
o Upward—towards high culture, politeness norms.
• Breakfast Club: Nerds use of politeness to the authority figure.
o Downward—Low culture, slang, informality.
• Breakfast Club: The nerd say “This is the shits, huh?”

Question 159

• Full versus partial versus hyper:

Answer 159

o Convergence doesn’t necessarily mean you are going to do something the same way as somebody else, and divergence doesn’t necessarily mean you are going to do something the opposite as somebody else. It is possible to partially converge and diverge at the same time.
• Example of Hyper: Study of assisted living facilities. They went into multiple nursing homes and they noticed hyper accommodation between staff and the older people. The staff uses baby talk, speaks very loudly. They attempt at convergence. But it’s so over the top that in the end it’s ineffective.

Question 160

• Unimodal versus mulitmodal

Answer 160

o Unimodal is when one aspect of their behavior is converging and multimodal is when you are converging more than one behavior at once.
• Example: If you’re sitting and listening to someone, you might match their eye gaze or orient towards them. You might not sit close to them or mimic parts of their speech.

o The important idea here is that you can converge through some modes or behaviors and, AT THE SAME TIME, diverge in other modes or behaviors.

Question 161

• Symmetrical versus asymmetrical

Answer 161

o One can try to converge communication to another, but when they other person diverges it becomes asymmetrical. Symmetrical would be both parties converging, diverging or maintaining.
o Symmetrical: becoming similar. Both of them. Or both changing away from each other.
o Asymmetrical: Breakfast club: Nerd converges towards the rebels behavior, but the rebel just stares back.

Question 162

• Subjective versus objective

Answer 162

o We can try to describe these patterns we see objectively. Individuals in acting these behaviors have their own understanding of these behaviors differently from outside perspective, thus making it subjective.

Question 163

How does attractiveness, power, or social status explain accommodation?

Answer 163

• We tend to converge toward people we are attracted to (whether it be physically, mentally, or emotionally).
• We tend to converge toward people with power or authority (UNLESS we ourselves are trying to prove our own power or authority, in which case we will diverge away from them, Example: Judd Nelson’s character in The Breakfast Club was trying to prove his own authority and status, so he diverged from the principal.)

Question 164

How does social identity explain accommodation?

Answer 164

• Social Identity- we use convergence and divergence to manage our social identity. Who we are is in part defined by who we affiliate/socialize with, groups and organizations.
• Example: We are all Aggies. One way to express this social identity is by converging towards what we think it means to be an Aggie. At a sporting event we usually yell, whoop, stand, we wear maroon.—Red Ass.
o We sometimes diverge as showing we have a difference or separation.—2%er

Question 165

Explain the distinction between emic and etic approaches to culture and communication.

Answer 165

• An Emic approach is a focus on aspects of communication that are particular to a culture (inside culture) (Tip! EM is a couple letters from IN—inside)
• Etic approach is a focus of aspects of communication that would be true across cultures (outside culture).

Question 166

Which approach adds value by understanding general communication behavior as it is influenced by culture? Which approach adds value by understanding communication behavior specific to a culture?

Answer 166

• EVT and CAT focus more on an Etic approach
• CMM focus more on an Emic approach
• Etic; Emic

Question 167

Must a particular theory be either emic or etic?

Answer 167

• NO. These theories tend to lend themselves to one approach or another.

Question 168

What does it mean to say that cultures are nested in one another? Explain how every culture is a sub-culture.

Answer 168

Cultures are like Russian nesting dolls. Every culture contains other cultures and every culture exists inside larger cultures. For example, you can say “I am Western” meaning that you are from America, Europe, or South America. Then WITHIN that culture, you can specify “I am America,” then within that culture you can say “I am Texan,” and so on.

This is important because within any given culture, there will be variations, because all cultures contain other cultures. Any culture you choose, at any level, will contain others.

Question 169

Can a person live in more than one culture?

Answer 169

Yes. In fact, every person, by the very definition of culture (that all cultures contain other cultures) MUST exist inside numerous cultures. You can be Hispanic and Catholic (two different cultural identities), or you can be Hispanic and Protestant, so on and so forth.

Question 170

Why is it important to note that cultures are nested within cultures and that a person can live in more than one culture?

Answer 170

This ensures that we don’t oversimplify our notions of what cultures are and what they mean. We can’t say “All Japanese people do this,” because we are aware that within Japanese culture, there are several other cultures that may or may not act in the same fashion. Or that some people in that culture might also be part of other cultures that cause them to act differently.

Question 171

Define speech codes and speech community

Answer 171

A speech code is a historically-enacted, culturally-created system of terms, meanings, premises, and rules that inform our communication conduct.

A speech community is ANY distinctive cultural community that has its own way of speaking

Speech codes are inherently connected to speech communities, because ANY distinctive community (and EVERY distinctive community) will have its own speech code.

Question 172

Does speech codes theory take a broad or narrow meaning of speech community? Give examples of speech communities.

Answer 172

It takes a very BROAD meaning of speech community, because EVERY community that is distinctive and has its own way of speaking is considered a speech community
Ex:
• Aggies (we have our own lexicon of whooping and hissing, etc.)
• Teamsters (Teamsterville was a blue-collar, working class town that had its own terms, meanings, and rules of communication)
• Scientists (particular fields have particular terms and definitions they use).

Question 173

What is diglossia? Give an example.

Answer 173

Diglossia occurs when an ENTIRE COMMUNITY has use of two languages that coexist within the community. THIS IS DIFFERENT FROM BILINGUALISM, because bilingualism refers to a single person, whereas diglossia occurs in a community.
• Usually there is one language used for everyday use and one for formal occasions.
• Haiti uses both French and Creole
• Norwegians use both local Norwegian and formal Norwegian depending on the topic of conversation–business versus small talk.

Question 174

What is code-switching? Given an example.

Answer 174

Code-switching occurs when people who speak numerous speech codes switch back and forth. This can occur in a single interaction and can be strategic or systematic.
• Canadian border patrol saying “Gig ‘Em”
• You might speak one way to your friends when driving home from a bar, but if you get pulled over by a cop you will switch codes to become more polite/formal.

Question 175

Is it possible for code-switching to occur within a specific interaction?

Answer 175

Yes–the Norwegian person dropping off something at a post office might speak a local dialect to chit-chat with the worker, but as soon as they switch to talking about business, they will switch to formal Norwegian.

Question 176

Must a culture be diglossic for code-switching to be possible?

Answer 176

Nope. The example of code-switching from speaking one way with your friends in the car and one way with a cop who pulls you over is an example of code switching while still speaking the same language.

Ex: If I am talking to friends in my major, I might use the language of my academic field, like “problematic assertions” or “tendentious handling of social issues,” but when I am with my parents, I simplify my language.

Question 177

How would speech codes theory explain different interpretation of the same behavior (e.g., Rich’s polite/impolite behavior at dinner)?

Answer 177

When the speech code of the person DOING the behavior differs from those interpreting the behavior, there will be different interpretations. An American family might view his huge helpings as him having a hearty appetite and might be a compliment to the cook. The Chinese family, however, saw it as selfish and impolite.

Question 178

Do speech codes determine communication behavior? Explain

Answer 178

No. They GUIDE our behavior, but they don’t determine it. Say you live in a community where the speech code says that you ALWAYS bow to your elders. Then say you have a falling out with your parents and they kick you out of the house. The next time you see them, you CHOOSE not to bow to them in order to make a statement. Even though the speech code says you bow to your elders, you can still make a choice as to whether you do it or not.

Question 179

Rhetorical-

Answer 179

the practical art of disclosure;
• social exigency requiring collective deliberation and judgement

Question 180

Semiotic-

Answer 180

intersubjective mediation by signs;
• Misunderstanding or gap between subjective viewpoints

Question 181

Phenomenological-

Answer 181

experience of otherness; dialogue
• how we experience “otherness” through dialogue–coming to understand varying perspectives through speaking to others

Question 182

Cybernetic-

Answer 182

• information processing

Noise, overload; a malfunction or “bug” in a system

Question 183

Sociopsycholgical-

Answer 183

• expression, interaction, and influence
  • situation requiring manipulation of causes of behavior to achieve specified outcomes

Question 184

Sociocultural-

Answer 184

Re)production of social order
conflict, alienation, misalignment; failure of coordination

Question 185

Critical-

Answer 185

discursive reflection
• Hegemonic ideology; systematically distorted speech situation

Question 186

propositions of speech codes theory

Answer 186

1. Wherever there is a distinctive culture, there is a distinctive speech code.
2. In any given community, multiple speech codes are deployed.
3. A speech code involves a culturally distinctive psychology, sociology, and rhetoric.
4. The significance of speaking depends on the speech codes used by LISTENERS to create and interpret their communication.
5. Speech codes must be discovered through observation of talk.
6. Speech codes guide and constrain behavior, but they do not have deterministic force.

Question 187

What does it mean to say that speech codes are distinctive?

Answer 187

Speech codes are distinctive because they are particular to a culture or community. They seperate a community from the rest of the world. If EVERYONE used the same speech codes, we would have no distinctive cultures or speech communities.

Question 188

Epistemologically

etic vs. emic

Answer 188

, etic approaches are more objective–you can learn about communication behaviors by observing the way people interact and collecting data. For emic approaches, it’s more subjective–you actually have to “imbed” yourself within and culture or immerse yourself within a culture to understand them.

Question 189

Ontologically

etic vs. emic

Answer 189

etic approaches are more realist–they try to create universal laws and behaviors across all cultures to explain behaviors. Emic approaches are more social constructionist–they view a community, society, or culture as creating their own meaning, definitions, and signs together, as a group.

Question 190

Axiologically

etic vs. emic

Answer 190

etic approaches tend to try to get rid of values. The goal with etic approaches is to come up with a theory that SPANS cultures and is universal, so we must rid ourselves of individual values that may be attached to our cultures. Etic approaches want what people IN GENERAL do, not what people with certain values from certain cultures do. Emic approaches embrace values associated with singular cultures. The idea is to understand a PARTICULAR culture, so you must take that culture’s values into account.