paper 2 - 2022 Flashcards
the behaviourists assumptions
- psychology is a science + behaviour should be studied using scientific methods
- psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour
- babies are born tabula rasa
- all behaviour is directly learned from the environment
- humans are no different from animals and shouldn’t be regarded as more complex
- research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans
classical conditioning - Pavlov
aim - explore the relationship between learning and behaviour
NS - bell
UCS - food
UCR - salivation
CR - salivation
CS - bell
associated the bell stimulus to food leading to an uncontrolled behaviour of drooling even when its not present
used to explain the acquisition of phobias and the development of attachment
operant conditioning - skinner
suggested: behaviour is the result learning through the consequences of our behaviour.
1. positive reinforcement - behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (repeated)
2. negative reinforcement - behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse consequence (repeated)
3. punishment - behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence (removal of behaviour)
skinner box - rats/pigeons - press level by accident- rewarded with food or removal of shocks- new voluntary behaviour and repeated to received reward again
strength of the behaviourist approach - well controlled research
approach based on well controlled research
behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. by breaking down behaviours into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause and effect relationship to be established.
for instance, skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animals behaviour.
this suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific creditability
counterpoint to well controlled research - behaviourist approach
however, the problem with this is that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process. by reducing to simply components, behaviourists may have ignored an important influence on learning such as human thoughts.
other approaches such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have drawn attention to the mental processes involvement in learning.
this suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and that private mental processes are also essential.
strength of the behaviourist approach - real world application
the principles of conditioning have been applied to real world behaviours and problems
for example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been successfully in institutions such as prisons and psychiatrics wards.
these work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges.
for example, of how classical conditioning has been applied to the treatment of phobias.
this increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.
weakness of the behaviourist approach - environmental determinism
sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences
skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. when something happens we may think ‘I made the decision to do that’ but according to skinner, our past conditioning history determined the outcome.
this ignores any possible influence that free will may have on our behaviour.
this is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour.
social learning theory - assumptions
- psychology is a science and behaviour should be studied using scientific methods
- behaviour is indirectly learned from the environment through observation
- humans imitate the behaviour of their role models
- mediational processes intervene between observation and imitation (stimulus and response)
vicarious reinforcement - social learning theory
reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforcement for a behaviour.
this is a key factor in imitation - not imitated if the behaviour is punished
learner observe a behaviour and the consequence of the behaviour
the role of mediational processes
bridge between the behaviourist and cognitive approaches because it focuses on mental factor involvement in learning
mental factors in the learning process determine if the new response is acquired.
4 processes in learning were identified by bandura
1. attention 2. retention 3. motor reproduction 4. motivation
first 2 relate to learning + second 2 relate to performance (not have to occur together)
stored and reproduced later
identification - social learning theory
when a observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
modelling = the process of imitating a behaviour and the behaviour of a role model
similar characteristics - attractive or high status
role model may not be physically present in the environment - important implication of media on behaviour.
strength of the social learning theory - cognitive processes
recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning
neither classical or operational conditioning can offer an adequate account for learning on their own. humans and animals about behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to preform certain actions. This was observed by Bandura that found that observing other peoples performing new behaviours will led to this coded in information server as a guide to action on later occasions.
this suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes
counterpoint to cognitive factor - social learning theory
despite this, SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning.
although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential, he thought that learning itself was determined by the environment.
however, recent research suggest that observational learning may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain, which allows us to empathies with and imitate other people
this suggest that biological influences on social learning were under emphasised in SLT.
weakness of social learning theory - contrived lab studies
evidence on which it it based was gathered through lab studies.
many of bandura’s ideas were developed through observations of young children’s behaviour in the lab. lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics.
for example in the Bandura bobo doll research that because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children may have been simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected.
this suggests that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
strength of social learning theory - real world application
SLT principles have been applied to a range of real world behaviours
social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles, such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement, can account for how children learn from other cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. this has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role.
this increases the value of the approach as it can account for real world behaviour.
Bobo doll research - aim
to investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles
bobo doll research - method
72 children aged between 3 and 6 years old
3 groups for 10 minutes
1. aggressive model - adult hit and shouted at the bobo doll - further subdivided into gender
2. non-aggressive model - adults played quietly with a construction set - subdivided
3. control group - not shown a model
children deliberately frustrated - alone in room with a range of aggressive toys, unaggressive toys and the bobo doll for 20 mins
Bobo dolls research - results
aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than than those in either of the other two groups.
boys intimated same sex models mores than girls
girls imitated more physical aggression they saw modelled on males and more verbal aggression from female models
bobo dolls research - conclusion
aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a model
issues and debates + social learning theory
behaviour is controlled by outside behaviour - soft determinism stance
nomothetic approach - attempts to generate general laws of behaviour which can be widely applied
psychodynamic approach assumptions
- born with basic instincts and needs
- behaviour and feelings as adults are rooted in childhood experiences
- relationships are great importance in determining how we feel and behave
- psychic determinism - behaviour
- affected by the unconscious
- personality has a discernible structure that was constructed through the psychosexual stages
- unconscious conflicts in the psyche are mediated by defense mechanisms
- human behaviour can be analysed through dreams, irrational behaviour and what people say in therapy.
the structure of the personality
ID = entirely unconscious, the ID is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification - pleasure principles - primal urges
EGO = the reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the ID and the superego - reality principles - not present at birth - anal stage of development
superego = the moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self how we ought to be - morality principles - inner voice - internalised parent and develops as a response to parental disciplines
psychosexual stages
oral - 0 to 1 years - mouth, sucking, biting - oral fixation: smoking, nail biting
anal - 1 to 3 years - undergo potty training, ego develops - anal retention or expulsive
phallic - 3 to 6 years - Oedipus or Electra complex - phallic fixation: reckless behaviour + narcissistic
latency - 6 to puberty - sexual energy is latent and can focus on world around them - N/A
genital - puberty + - psychosexual energy take residence in the genitals - homosexual relationships
defence mechanisms
repression - memory forced out of conscious awareness and into the unconscious
denial - reuse to accept the truth or reality of a situation
displacement - feelings towards a target individual cannot be expressed directly and are therefore transferred onto someone or something else
short term good and long term damaging
protect the ego from high levels of anxiety but prolonged used can be psychological damaging.
the role of the unconscious
iceberg metaphor used by Freud
consciousness - top of the iceberg
unconsciousness - larger proportion under surface
pre-consciousness - thoughts and feelings are accessible but aren’t being currently being thought about
traumatic events or memories from childhood are repressed into the unconscious mind, hidden from conscious awareness - can be explored through psychoanalysis
reveal itself - dreams, fantasies and Freudian slip
strength of psychodynamic approach - real world application
introduced the idea of psychotherapy.
Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy - psychoanalysis. this was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. the new therapy employed a range of techniques designed to assess the unconscious, such as dream analysis.
psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing up their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with. psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern- day talking therapies such as counselling, that have since been established.
this shows that value of the psychodynamic approach is creating a new approach to treatment.
counterpoint to real world application -psychodynamic approach
although Freudian therapists have claimed success with many clients with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate and even harmful for people experiencing more serious mental disorders, for example many symptoms of schizophrenia (paranoia and delusional thinking) mean that those with the disorder have a lost grip sense of reality and cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis
this suggests that Freudian therapy may not apply to all mental disorders.
strength of psychodynamic approach - explanatory power
Freud’s theory is controversial in many ways but it has nevertheless had a huge influence on psychology and western contemporary thought.
alongside behaviorism, the psychodynamic approach remained a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20the century and has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender identity.
the approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents, and our later development.
this suggests that, overall, the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psychology.
weakness of psychodynamic approach - untestable concept
the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification and it is not open to empirical testing. also many of Freud’s concepts, like the ID and Oedipus complex, are said to be in the unconscious mind making them difficult or almost impossible to test. furthermore, his ideas were based on the subjective study of single individuals such as little Hans, which makes it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour.
this suggests that Freud’s theory was Pseudoscientific rather than established fact.
weakness of psychodynamic approach - gender and cultural bias
significant gender biases.
for example the idea of the Oedipus complex is androcentric and many would claim this make irrelevant to an understanding of women.
also criticised for being culturally bias as all of Freud patients came from the Viennese middle class, and his universal generalisations were based on highly unrepresentative sample. for example, his idea of the talking cure may be more beneficial in cultures were it is acceptable to talk about personal problems.
little Hans
support the idea of the Oedipus complex
5 year old boy who developed a phobia of a horses after seeing one collapse in the street.
Freud suggests that Han’s phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto the horses.
therefore horses were a merely a symbolic representation of Han’s real unconscious fear of castration
issues and debates + psychodynamic approach
psychic determinism
not scientific
humanistic psychology
an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experiences and each person’s capacity for self-determination
humanistic approaches assumptions
- recognises the uniqueness of the individual and believe that everyone is different
- have to look at thing for the individuals point of view and try and understand their subjective experience
- believes in the study of conscious experience from the first person point of view
- believe humans have free will and make conscious decisions
- optimistic view - people are fundamentally good and motivated by a conscious desire to grow themselves psychologically and achieve self-actualisation
free will - humanistic approach
the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by internal biological or external forces. (active agents)
influence over their own destiny even with constraints that exist in life from outside forces.
Roger and Maslow - reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour and we should psychology itself should be concerned with the subjective experience. (person- centred approach)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
self actualisation (growth need) self-esteem love and belonging safety and security basic psychological needs ( x4 deficiency need)
- motivates behaviour
- to reach self actualisation all other need have to be meet.
- primary goal to reach self actualisation
self-actualisation - humanistic approach
the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what are capable of.
uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy
primary goal - only can be achieved if all other needs are meet.
applies to early development in babies where they are focused on psychological needs and applies through the rest of life.
personal growth is essential part of what it means to be human. - developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisficed and goal-orientated.
not everyone will manage it
strength of the humanist approach - optimistic view of humans
as such its views have been praised for bringing the person back into psychology.
Maslow viewed humans as fundamentally good and motivated by a conscious desire to grow themselves psychologically and achieve self-actualisation
this is in total contrast to Freud who views humans as slaves to their past and as existing between common unhappiness and absolute despair.
therefore the humanistic approach is a popular approach for its recognition of the good of humans
strength of the humanistic approach - belief in holism
rejects the reductionist approach adopted by all other approaches.
instead the humanistic approach believes that the best way to explain human behaviour is to look at case studies of individuals as a whole and look at their subjective experiences of the world around them; they use a variety of in-depth qualitative methods to try understand all the differing and interlinking factors that may come together in their lives to explain their behaviour.
therefore the humanistic approach is often viewed as much more humanising approach and also may offer a more complete explanation of human behaviour as it considers the individual behaviour within a real life context.
weakness of the humanistic approach - cultural bias
many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much more readily associated with countries that have more individualist tendencies.
countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise more needs of the group and interdependence. in such countries, the ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important as in others.
therefore it is possible that this approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed
weakness of the humanistic approach - unscientific
this is because the approach involves a number of more vague and abstract aspects that are important to test e.g. self- actualisation
furthermore much of the evidence base for Maslow’s theory of self actualisation was based on a limited number of case studies of famous people, which is far form a representative sample and therefore is difficult to generalised.
therefore, this has led to the rejection of the approach by many who do not see it is a valid approach to explaining human behaviour, but rather a collection of unsupported abstract ideas.
the self, congruence and conditions of worth- humanistic approach
personal growth can be achieved if an individuals concept of self must be broadly equivalent to or have congruence with their ideal self.
if the gap is to big between the two selves the person with experience a state of incongruence and self actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self worth that arise from incongruence.
client centered therapy - humanistic approach
reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self
Roger developed client centered therapy.
issue we experience everyday as adults have roots in childhood (anxiety and self worthlessness) and can often be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents.
- parent set boundaries or limits in their love for their child by claiming ‘I will love you if..’ is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future.
role of the therapist to provide unconditional positive regards.
define congruence
the aim of Rogerian therapy
when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
define the nervous system
consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. communicates using electrical signals.
the human nervous system
peripheral nervous system central nervous system
autonomic (ANS) somatic (SNS) Brain spinal cord
sympathetic parasympathetic
central nervous system
consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions
brain = Centre of all conscious decisions, cerebral cortex 3mm + covers the brain, two hemispheres
spinal cord = extension of the brain, passed messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS. responsible for reflex actions
the peripheral nervous system
sends information to the CNS from outside world, and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body
transmits messages, via millions of neurons, to and from the CNS
Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
autonomic nervous system
governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses
transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. it is autonomic as the system operates involuntarily. it has two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
somatic nervous system
governs muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors
define neuron
the basic building blocks of the nervous system. neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
(80% located in the brain) - primary source of communication to the nervous system
elements of a neuron
dendrites - carry impulses to neighboring neuron
myelin sheath - protects axon and speeds up electrical transmissions
nodes of Ranvier - gaps between myelin sheath - jump
cell body - nucleus, genetic information
axon- carries impulse away from cell body
terminal buttons - end of axon - communicate with next neuron
sensory neuron
carry messages from the PNS to the CNS.
long dendrites
short axons
relay neurons
connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons
short dendrites and axons
motor neurons
connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands
short dendrites
long axons
location of neurons
cell body of motor neurons may be in the CNS but they have long axons which form part of the PNS.
sensory neurons located outside the CNS in the PNS in clusters knows as ganglia
relay neurons - 97% of all neurons and most are found in within the brain and visual system.
electrical transmission - the firing of a neuron
neuron resting state = negatively charge compared to the outside
activated by a stimulus - inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a second causing an action potential to occur
creates electrical impulse - travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron.
chemical transmissions - synaptic transmissions
neuron communicate in a groups called neural networks
each neuron is separate but they have small gaps between them called a synapse.
signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synaptic
when the electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic terminal it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles
neurotransmitters - synaptic transmissions
chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron
bind and are taken up by a postsynaptic receptor site
chemical message converted back into an electrical impulse
can only travel one way as they are released by the presynaptic neuron terminal and received by the postsynaptic neuron.
postsynaptic receptor sites - lock and key - specific molecule structure
each have a specific structure
excitatory and inhibitory - synaptic transmission
neurotransmitters - excitatory or inhibitory
serotonin = inhibitory - neuron becomes more negatively charged making the neuron less likely to fire
adrenaline = excitatory - postsynaptic neuron - make it more likely to fire.
summation - synaptic transmission
postsynaptic neuron fires is decided by the process of summation
excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed - net effect on postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory then less likely to fire
net effect - excitatory - likely to fire - inside becomes positively charged - electrical charge travel down neuron.
action potential of the postsynaptic neuron is only triggered if the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold
Phineas cage
(support for localisation)
case study
iron rode went through his left check behind his eye and exiting out of his skull - taking a portion of brain with him - left temporal lobe
survived - but affected his personality became angry and quick tempered
concluded that the temporal lobe is responsible for regulating mood
define localisation of functions
the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours, processes or activities.
localisation versus holistic theory
Broca and Wernicke argue for localisation of the brain - idea that different areas are responsible of different behaviours, processes and activities
if a certain area is damaged through illness or injury, the function associated with that area will also be affected.
hemispheres of the brain
the main part of the brain is divided by two symmetrical halves called the left and right hemispheres
some physical and psychological functions are controlled by a particular hemisphere
left side of the body = right hemisphere
right side of the body = left hemisphere
language = left hemisphere
hemispheres of the brain
the main part of the brain is divided by two symmetrical halves called the left and right hemispheres
some physical and psychological functions are controlled by a particular hemisphere
left side of the body = right hemisphere
right side of the body = left hemisphere
language = left hemisphere
motor area
a region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body
damage = loss of fine movement
(back of the frontal lobe)
lobes and roles
frontal = cognitive functions, such as memory, emotions, social interactions, motor functions parietal = sensory information occipital = visual area temporal = auditory area cerebellum = small brain - balance, motor skills
somatosensory area
an area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch
separated from the motor area by the ‘valley’ or central sulcus
sensory information from the skin
the amount of the somatosensory area devoted to an area the more sensitive it is e.g. face or palm of hand
visual area
a part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information
both eyes sends information from the left and right visual field to the right cortex
damage to left hemisphere’s visual field can produce blindness in both right visual field of both eyes.
Auditory area
located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech-based information
damage = loss of comprehensive or production
Brocas area
restricted to the left hemisphere - found by Paul Broca
Broca = small area in the left frontal lobe responsible to speech responsibility
damage = slow, laborious speech and a lack fluency
case study = Tan (only word he would say) - post mortem
Broca aphasia = affect the ability to comprehended language
