Topic 1 (changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation, separation, divorce, childbearing and the sociology of personal life, the diversity of contemporary family and household structures)

Question 1

What is a household?

Answer 1

A person living alone or a group of people living together for examples sharing meals, bills, housework etc. This group may or may not be related to one another.

Question 2

What are two contrasting definitions of the family?

Answer 2

1) It involves monogamous marriage between a man + a women, plus their child(ren), all sharing the same residence. The nuclear family is often held up as the ideal but this definition rules out groups that many would see as unmarried cohabiting couples.
2) A set of arrangements that those involved see as a family, is a family. Prevents others making judgements about people’s lifestyles: if you define your own personal set up as a family, sociologists have no right to disagree. However, some see this approach as too broad.

Question 3

What are Rapoport and Rapoport’s five types of diversity?

Answer 3

Believe there are a range of different family types based on the fact we live in a pluralistic society (cultures + lifestyles are more diverse).This reflects greater freedom of choice. They see diversity as a positive response to peoples different wishes/needs.
identify 5 types of diversity:
cultural - caused by migration - ethnic groups have different family structures.
life-stage - through individuals life course they’re likely to experience a variety of family structures.
organisational - different ways of organising the household an the family roles.
generational - depending on the era an individual lived in they may have different views towards household structures.
social class - income of a family can influence its structure.

Question 4

What do Eversley and Bonnerjea say about family structures?

Answer 4

Link family structures with geographical location and local influences.
(6 types):
Affluent south - mobile 2 parent nuclear Fam.
Geriatric wards - coastal areas which attract retired + elderly couples.
Recently declined area - young fam often move here and have little support from extended kin.
Rural areas - Fam who work in agriculture or related areas of economy - tend to be extended + traditional.
Inner cities - high level of social deprivation + large pop. many SPH + higher proportion of migrants. also many LPF - people more likely isolated from kin.
Older industrial areas - traditional fam structure + relationships + older population.

Question 5

What are the 4 key trends in Marriage?

Answer 5

1) Fewer people are marrying
2) Civil ceremonies have increased
3) people are marrying later
4) remarriages are increasing

Question 6

Whats a piece of evidence that supports the trend: fewer people are marrying?

Answer 6

marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920s

Question 7

Statistic to support idea that people are marrying later in life

Answer 7

In 2012 the average age for first time marriage had increased by 7 years since 1971 (32 for men and 30 for women)

Question 8

Statistic to support fewer people marrying

Answer 8

The proportion of households that contained a married couple has fallen from 74% in 1961 to 42% in 2016

Question 9

Statistic to support remarriages are increasing

Answer 9

Remarriages for both partners accounted for 15% of all marriages, the remaining 19% accounted for those where one partner had been married previously. This is leading to a pattern of serial monogamy, a trend of marriage-divorce-remarriage.

Question 10

what are civil ceremonies? Evidence to support their increase?

Answer 10

a non-religious legal marriage ceremony performed by a government official.
Couples are less likely to marry in church today.
The proportion of civil ceremonies first exceeded the number of religious ceremonies in 1992.

Question 11

what are the reasons for fewer people marrying?

Answer 11

changing attitudes to marriage: less pressure to marry and more freedom to choose the type of relationship you want. quality of couples relationship is more important than its status. the ‘norm’ that everyone must get married is greatly weakened.
secularisation - as the churches influence decreases, people feel freer to choose not to marry.
declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage: cohabitation, remaining single, having children outside of marriage are now widely regarded as acceptable. pregnancy no longer leads to ‘shotgun wedding’.
changes in position of women: better educational + career prospects - women are now less economically dependant on men. this gives them greater freedom not to marry. feminist view - marriage is an oppressive patriarchal institution that may dissuade women from marrying.
fear of divorce: rising divorce rates > some may be put off marrying because they see the increased likelihood of marriage ending in divorce.

Question 12

what is the reason for the rise in remarriages?

Answer 12

The number of divorces are increasing. the rising number of divorces provide supply of people who are now available to remarry.

Question 13

what are the reasons for people marrying later?

Answer 13

younger people postpone marrying for a number of reasons: spend longer in full time education, establish themselves in their career, save money, cohabit before getting married.

Question 14

why have civil ceremonies increased?

Answer 14

secularisation: fewer people see the relevance of religious ceremonies.
many churches refuse to marry divorcees - divorcees nowadays make up a growing proportion of those marrying.

Question 15

what are the reasons for the trend of increasing cohabitation?

Answer 15

Changes in position of women
Secularisation: young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit than those with a religion.
Changing social attitudes and declining stigma: young people are more likely to cohabit than older people and therefore are more accepting.
Fear of divorce

Question 16

How does Chandler (1993) and Chester (1985) differ in their ideas of cohabitation?

Answer 16

chandler suggests cohabitation ahs been increasingly accepted as permanent alternative to marriage and this is reflected in increasing no. of children born outside of marriage.
Chester argued that in most cases cohabitation is a transient, temporary phase before marriage - stepping stone to it.

Question 17

What evidence did Coast (2006) find to support the idea of cohabitation as a prelude to marriage?

Answer 17

75% of cohabiting couples expect to marry each other if their cohabitation is successful.

Question 18

What’s a Statistic that shows rate of divorce in UK?

Answer 18

Latest statistics found that 42% of marriages in England and wales end in divorce.

Question 19

What factors influence the likelihood of divorce ?

Answer 19

cohabitation has increased in recent years. people often live together before getting married, + this may act to filter out weaker relationships from progressing to marriage.
the age at which people first marry has been increasing. population trends show that those marrying when they’re older have a lower risk of divorce.
whether they had married before.

Question 20

What is the Divorce Reform Act 1969?

Answer 20

Made divorce easier

Divorce available after 2 yrs agreed separation/5yrs if only one spouse agreed to divorce.

Question 21

What is the civil partnership act (2004)?

Answer 21

this allowed legal dissolution of civil partnership on the same grounds as for marriage - irretrievable breakdown.

Question 22

What are the reasons for the increase in divorce?

Answer 22

changes in divorce legislation - made it easier + cheaper to end marriages: equalising grounds for divorce, widening grounds for divorce, providing legal aid. previously people remained in ‘empty shell marriages’ but now these solutions are less popular, because divorce is easier.
changing social attitudes: Mitchell and Goody- divorce is no longer associated with shame + stigma. long term shift away form monogamy to serial monogamy. Less pressure to stay in empty shell marriage.
secularisation: fewer people who believe that marriage has to be ‘till death do us part’.
rising expectations of marriage- more people demand higher standards from their partners . today, people are less likely to tolerate an unfulfilling relationship.
changing role of women: feminists note women’s expectations of marriage have radically changed, this reflects their improved status. they are more likely to be in paid work, pay gap has been narrowed, they have greater success in education. in the past women were trapped economically, however today they have greater financial independence + there is more state help for SPF.

Question 23

What are the 4 key trends of childbearing?

Answer 23

women are having children later
more women are remaining childless
women are having fewer children
increase in number of children born outside of marriage

Question 24

what evidence does Brown (1995) provide to support the trend of more children being born outside marriage?

Answer 24

This trend reflects a reduction in ‘shot gun weddings’ where couples marry to legitimise pregnancy.

Question 25

Statistics to show more women are remaining childless

Answer 25

2013 - 1 in 5 women reaching the age of 45 were childless.

Question 26

Evidence to support women are having fewer children:

Answer 26

average number of children per women fell from 2.95 in 1964 to a record low of 1.63 in 2001.
this increase was largely accounted by non- UK born women having greater number of children.

Question 27

What are the reasons for changes in childbearing?

Answer 27

Declining stigma: people are no longer judged for having children ‘out of wedlock’.
More people are cohabitating: greater opportunity/risk of people becoming pregnant before getting married.
Changes in the position of women: they have more opportunities than just motherhood. women are choosing to establish themselves in a career before starting a family , if they choose to start family at all.
increased choice and effectiveness in birth control means that women can be in charge of their fertility.

Question 28

What are the patterns and trends for Lone parent families?

Answer 28

Today 1 in 4 children live in a lone parent family.
A child living with a lone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty as a child living with two parents .
Lone parent families are most likely to be headed by the mother.

Question 29

what has changed about the cause of LPS?

what does this show?

Answer 29

In the past, most Lone parent families has emerged as a result of divorce + separation. This meant divorced women were the biggest group of lone mothers.
In 2011, over half of lone parents with dependant children had never been married. This meant single women became the biggest group of lone mothers. links to decline in stigma attached to births outside marriage.
Reflects the reality that some mothers are single by choice. women may not want to cohabit or marry, or they may wish to limit father’s involvement with the child. women no longer need a man to help them raise the family.

Question 30

What is the reason for LPFs being matrifocal?

Answer 30

9 out of 10 LPFs are headed by single mothers.
women are more likely to take the main caring responsibilities for any children when relationships break down. This reflects widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an expressive or nurturing role. Divorce courts usually give custody to mothers. Research also shows generally men are less willing than women to give up work to care for children.

Question 31

What are the patterns and trends of single person households?

Answer 31

increase in the number of people living alone.
2006 - 3 in 10 households contained only 1 person.
40% of all one-person households are over 65.
Non-pensioner single-person households has tripled since 1961 (men under 65 - the most likely to live alone).

Question 32

What are the reasons for the increase in single person households?

Answer 32

increase in separation + divorce:
this has created more single person households, especially among men under 65. Following divorce, children are more likely to live with their mother.
change in marriage patterns:
decline in number of marriages, coupled with the trend towards people marrying later, means more people are remaining single or experience some time living in a single person household.
the ageing population :
helps to explain increase in single person households over 65. however at this age 69% of people living alone were female. due to demographic factors, there are more women than men in total population aged 65 or due to women’s higher life expectancy. There are 1.7 mil widowed women aged 65 or living alone in UK, three times no. of men.

Question 33

Stein

Answer 33

Argues that more people are choosing to live alone - he calls this ‘creative single hood’.

Question 34

Duncan + Phillips’ research for British Social Attitudes Survey (2007)

Answer 34

Found 1 in 10 adults are ‘living apart together’ - they are in a significant relationship but not married or cohabiting.
They suggest that being a LAT is no longer seen as ‘abnormal’ but that it is unlikely that more traditional relationships are being rejected in favour of it.

Question 35

Describe trend/ patterns of LATs

Answer 35

is thought that half of all people classified as single are LAT.
this reflects trend towards less formalised relationships and ‘families of choice’.
public attitudes towards LATs are favourable. 20% of people see LATs as their ‘ideal relationship’ - this is more than the no. who prefer t cohabit.

Question 36

What are the patterns and trends of Reconstituted families?

Answer 36

RFs now account for 10% of all families with dependant children in Britain.
Growing trend today - an increasing number of children experience co-parenting, where they spend a part of the week with their mother + stepfather and the rest of the week with their biological father. seen as BI-NUCLEAR FAMILY: two separate post break-up households that are essentially one family system for children.
ALLAN + CROW (2001) : RFs may face particular problems of ‘divided loyalties’ and issues surrounding the contact with a non-resident parent.
MCCARTHY ET AL (2003) argue there is great diversity amongst reconstituted families - some have tensions, others are have no more tensions than intact conventional nuclear Fams.
FERRI AND SMITH (1998) found RFs are at greater risk of poverty as more children to support. however, involvement of stepparents in children seen as positive.

Question 37

What are Reconstituted Families?

And what are the trends of reconstituted families?

Answer 37

blended families or stepfamilies. Mainly born out of post-divorce parenting. this is where divorced people or lone parents remarry + at least one partner has a child/children from a previous relationship.
this type of family unit has increased along with the rise in divorce.
(some sociologists argue that there is a difference between reconstituted - made up of stepchildren - + blended families - contains stepchildren, plus half brothers and sisters)

Question 38

Explanations of trends/patterns in reconstituted families:

Answer 38

changes in parental relationships status: divorce and separation are responsible for the creation of stepfamilies.
children usually remain with the mother
more children to support: increase likelihood of RFs in poverty.
Lack of social norms: tensions faced by stepfamilies may be the result of a lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in such families.

Question 39

Changes/ reforms in law on same sex couples

Answer 39

2004 - given same legal rights as married couples (pensions, inheritance etc).
2014 - allowed to marry.

Question 40

What are the patterns and trends of same sex couples?

What did Stonewall do?

Answer 40

the gay lifestyle was adopted by many in the 1970s, which largely rejected monogamy + family life, in favour of casual relationships.
however not much data to establish patterns/trends of same-sex relationships. in the past, there was a lot of stigma + illegality attached to same sex relationships - these relationships were hidden.
In 2019 the number of same-sex families in the UK had increased by 40% since 2015.
there has been an increase in the number of same sex couples with children.
STONEWALL (2012) campaign for lesbian, gay + bisexual rights. estimate about 5-7% of the adult population today have same-sex relationships.

Question 41

Weeks (1999)

Answer 41

argues that increased social acceptance may explain a trend towards same-sex cohabitation + stable relationships that resemble those found among heterosexuals. he saw homosexual individuals as creating families based on the ideas of ‘friendship as kinship’ + described these families as ‘chosen families’ arguing that they offer the same security + stability as heterosexual families.

Question 42

Changes/reforms in law for same sex families having children

Answer 42

Adoption for same sex couples became legal in 2005.
The human fertilisation and embryology act (2008) and the civil partnership act (2004) have made it easier for gay lesbian couples to secure parental rights for any children they conceive through artificial insemination.

Question 43

What are the changing social attitudes to same sex FAMILIES?

Answer 43

LGBT people have entered into surrogacy agreements + co-parenting arrangements. The campaign group stonewall worked hard to ensure that all lesbian, gay, bisexual people are equally capable of creating loving/ supportive families . want to make sure people know parenting is an option for everyone - regardless of their sexual orientation.
in UK it is legal for lesbian, gay, bisexual people to both adopt + foster children. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR ADOPTION AND FOSTERING - growing no. of gay men + lesbians have entered joint adoption proceedings since adoption for same sex couples became legal in 2005.
HUMAN FERTILISATION AND EMBRYOLOGY ACT 2008 and CIVIL PARTNERSHIP ACT 2004 - made it easier for lesbian couples to secure parental rights for any children they conceive through artificial insemination.

Question 44

What are the patterns and trends of extended families?

Answer 44

Prior to the industrial revolution, extended families were the dominant family type. However, in modern industrial society it is replaced by the nuclear family.

Question 45

What did CHAMBERLAIN (1999) find on extended families?

Answer 45

Study of Caribbean families in Britain:
despite being geographically dispersed, they continue to provide support. she describes them as ‘multiple nuclear families’ with close and frequent contact between siblings, uncles, aunts + cousins, who often make a big contribution to childbearing.

Question 46

What did researcher WILLMOTT (1998) find about extended families?

Answer 46

argues that where family structures continue to exist there are ‘dispersed extended families’. This is where relatives are geographically separated but maintain contact through visits, phone calls, email, social media.

Question 47

What are Beanpole families?

Answer 47

a particular type of extended family described by BRANNEN (2003) as ‘long and thin’. It is extended vertically through three or more generations.
they may be the result of two demographic changes:
increased life expectancy - more surviving grandparents + great-grandparents.
smaller family sizes meaning people have fewer siblings + thus fewer horizontal ties.

Question 48

Cheal (2002) on obligations to relatives

Answer 48

A systematic set of rules exists for deciding who has the greatest obligation to help. It is usually the spouse followed by daughters/ daughters in law and then sons. Other relatives are then obligated to help out, with non-relatives helping out as a last resort.

Question 49

Reasons for changes in extended families:

Answer 49

dispersed extended families:
due to changes in technology allowing people to remain in contact despite being distant physically.
beanpole families:
demographic factors (life expectancy + smaller families) explain why there is the ‘long and thin’ structure.

Question 50

how has immigration impacted family patterns?

Answer 50

immigration into BR over last 60-70 years has contributed to greater ethnic diversity.
greater ethnic diversity has contributed to range of family types in contemporary Britain.

Question 51

Statistic on black families as LPFs

Answer 51

Black Caribbean and Black African people have a higher proportion of lone parent families.
2012 - over 1/2 of all families w/ dependant children headed by black persons were LPFs.

Question 52

What is the reason for black families having a higher proportion of lone parent families?

Answer 52

high rate of female-headed lone parent families has sometimes been seen as evidence of family disorganisation that can be traced back to slavery or high rates of unemployment among black males. under slavery, when couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother. Arguably, this established a pattern of family life that persists today. also argued male unemployment + poverty have meant black men are less able to provide for their family, results in higher rates of desertion/ marital breakdown.
Evaluation: MIRZA (1997) argues that higher rate of of LPFs among the black community is not the result of disorganisation, rather reflects the high value that black women place on independence. REYNOLDS (1997) argues statistics are misleading, apparently many ‘lone’ parents are in a stable, supportive but non-cohabitating couples.

Question 53

What is the trend/pattern of Asian families?

Answer 53

Asian households tend to be larger than other ethnic groups. such households are sometimes multi-generational, often organised through a network of males bound together by ideas of brotherhood + loyalty, most are nuclear rather than extended families.

Question 54

What are the reasons for larger Asian households?

Answer 54

Larger households are partly result of younger age profile of British Asians , since higher proportion are in childbearing age groups compared with pop as a whole.
Larger Asian households also reflect value placed on extended family in Asian cultures.
Found that extended families provided an important source of support among Asian migrants during the 1950s and 60s. Today, most Asian households are nuclear, relatives often live nearby reflecting importance of kinship networks.
Furthermore, he also found that whilst many marriages are largely arranged + seen as a contract between two families, children today increasingly expect to have a say in their marriage partners and couples expect more independence from their kin.

Question 55

Leach

Answer 55

Refers to politicians, media and advertising promoting the view that the nuclear family is the idealised norm as the ‘cereal packet image’.

Question 56

What is the functionalist view of the nuclear fam?

Answer 56

Prefer the nuclear fam + place a high value on it. Parsons argued there is a ‘functional fit’ between the nuclear fam and modern society. nuclear fam creates a geographically mobile workforce, performs two irreducible functions: primary socialisation of children and the stabilisation of adult personalities. therefore, they believe nuclear families contribute to overall stability + effectiveness of society; likely consider other family types to be dysfunctional, abnormal or deviant.

Question 57

What does CHESTER (1985) say about the nuclear fam (as Functionalist) ?

Answer 57

Finds evidence that little has changed to the family:
most people live in a household headed by married couple
most adults marry + have children.
cohabitation has increased, but for most couples this is a temporary phase before marrying or re-marrying + most couples get married if they have children.
He claims that most people experience the nuclear fam at some point in their lives.
Argues there has been some increased diversity but only significant change has been evolution of the nuclear fam into neo-conventional Fam: composed of dual earners rather division of labour between male as the breadwinner + the female as the homemaker.
He suggests the extent and importance of family diversity has been exaggerated. plus, most diverse family structures actually conform to a modified version of the nuclear unit.

Question 58

Evaluation of the functionalist view of nuclear fam:

Answer 58

positives: focuses on positive aspects and functions of the nuclear family.
negative: feminists would argue that it still doesn’t show gender equality.

Question 59

What is the new right view on the nuclear family?

Answer 59

Adopt a conservative + antifeminist perspective + are firmly opposed to family diversity. hold view that nuclear family is the only correct/ideal/natural family type. support conventional patriarchal nuclear fam w/ male as the breadwinner + female in mother/housewife role. see family diversity as a product of fam breakdown - leads to many social problems: lack of discipline/ educational failure/ crime and a dependency culture.
particularly critical of LPFs + claim it is the result of the collapses of cohabitating couples. They argue that-
lone mothers cannot discipline their children
LPFs leave boys w/o adult male role model, results in educational failure and social instability.
families also likely to be poorer + burden on welfare state/ taxpayers.
argue that only a return to traditional values/ social policies can prevent social disintegration.

Question 60

Evaluation of new right view of the nuclear fam:

Answer 60

feminists: new right view is negative reaction against women’s equality. Also argue conventional nuclear family reinforces patriarchy.
no evidence that children in LPFs are more likely delinquent.
cohabitation doesn’t mean commitment is challenged as there are some who view it as a permanent alternative to marriage.
rate of cohabitation is higher in poorer social groups. SMART (2011) argues poverty may cause relationship break down rather than a lack of commitment.

Question 61

Oakley (Feminism) on nuclear family

Answer 61

conventional nuclear family is based on patriarchal oppression + fundamental cause of gender inequality.
Believes the new right view of the Family is a negative reaction against the feminist campaign for women’s equality. As a feminist, he sees family diversity as a positive, liberating trend where individuals, particularly women, are able to live in units which reflect their own individual choice.
feminists like changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation, divorce and plurality of household types. see these trends as evidence of ‘supposed decline’ in institution of marriage and the family.

Question 62

Evaluation of feminist view of nuclear family:

Answer 62

Positives: focus on changing position of women in society and their impact on the family.
Negatives: Ignores negative impacts of family diversity on individuals as they are focusing too much on liberation of women.

Question 63

Giddens + Beck - Individualisation Thesis (postmodernism on family diversity)

Answer 63

This thesis argues that in the past peoples lives were defined by fixed roles that largely prevented people from choosing their own life course; social structures (class, gender + family) really influenced people. Today, individuals become dis-embedded from traditional roles and structures leaving them with more freedom to choose how they lead their lives. Beck argues life course that people followed in the past has been replaced by the ‘do it yourself biography’ that individuals must construct for themselves.

Question 64

Postmodernist Giddens (choice and equality in family diversity)

Answer 64

Family + marriage has been transformed by greater choice. The pure relationship has become typical of modern society which is no longer held by norms religion + laws. its key feature to satisfy each partners needs. individuals have the freedom to enter/ leave a relationship when see fit. relationships part of individual’s self discovery: trying different relationships becomes a way of establishing ‘who we are’. although also recognises with more choice, personal relationships become less stable.

Question 65

Postmodernist Beck (negotiated family )

Answer 65

Argues we now live in a ‘risk’ society where tradition has less influence on peoples lives. we now have to calculate the risks and rewards of our choices.
Beck believes the traditional patriarchal family has been undermined by greater gender equality and individualism.
The negotiated fam decides what is best in relation to wishes of other Fam members + comes to a conclusion by negotiating.
Whilst this is more equal, it is less stable as individuals are free to leave if their needs are not met.
Beck describes the fam as a ‘zombie category’, appears to be alive but in reality, is dead. people want the fam to be a haven of security but todays fam cannot provide this because of its instability.

Question 66

The personal life perspective and their criticisms of the individualisation thesis:

Answer 66

1. it exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationship - traditional norms still prevail.
2. wrongly sees people as dis embedded, ‘free-floating’, independent individuals. ignores the fact decisions + choices about personal relationships + made within a social context.
3. ignores importance of structural factors such as social class inequalities + patriarchal gender norms in limiting + shaping relationship choices.
   claims their view is ‘an idealised version of a white middle class man’.

Question 67

The personal life perspective:Smart (connectedness thesis)

Answer 67

Rather than seeing individuals as dis-embedded w/ limitless choice about personal relationships , she argues we are social beings whose choices are always made 'within a web of connectedness'.
We live within networks of existing relationships + personal histories which strongly influence our range of options and choices in our relationships.
This thesis emphasises the role of class and gender structures in which we are embedded. It argues that these limit our choices about the kinds of relationships and Families we can create for ourselves.