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BIOL 2160 > Cell biology > Flashcards

Cell biology Flashcards

1
Q

what is an atom

A

the basic unit of all forms of matter

is the smallest unit of matter that retains the physical and chemical properties of the element

everything is made up onf atoms

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2
Q

atoms are made up of _____ particles

A

subatomic

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3
Q

What are the 3 most stable subatomic particles

A

neutrons, protons, and electrons

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4
Q

what subatomic particle(s) are found in the nucleus

A

protons and neutrons

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5
Q

what kind of charge does a proton have

A

positive

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6
Q

what kind of charge does a neutron have

A

no charge

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7
Q

what kind of charge does an electron have

A

a negative charge

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8
Q

where is the electron located

A

orbiting the nucleus

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9
Q

why do electrons orbit the nucleus

A

they are constantly in motion and are attracted to the positively-charged nucleus

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10
Q

what are electron orbitals

A

3D space around the nucleus of an atom where an electron will be found

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11
Q

how many electrons do every element need in order to stay stable? who is excluded from this?

A

they need 8 electrons in its outer orbital

helium and hydrogen excluded from this

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12
Q

why do hydrogen and helium NOT need 8 electrons

A

they are the lightest elements.

they only need two electrons in the outer shell in order to stay stable

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13
Q

how many particles do hydrogen have

A

hydrogen has only one electron and one proton

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14
Q

how many electrons does helium have

A

they have 2 electrons, meaning it is stable

it also has two protons and two neutrons

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15
Q

what determines the chemical behavior of an atom

A

it is determined by the number of electrons in the outermost electron shell

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16
Q

when is an atom reactive and when it is inert

A

an atom with an incomplete (partially full) electron shell is reactive whereas an atom with a full electron shell is inter, or not chemically active

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17
Q

what happened to the blimp (Hindenburg)

A

a spark ignited the hydrogen gas and caused the explosion because it does not have a full outer orbital

now blimps are filled with helium because it is lighter than air but also has a full outer orbital

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18
Q

what does a reactive atom want to do

A

they want to try to fill the valence shell by interacting with other atoms
This interaction may result in two atoms forming chemical bonds
a chemical bond is an attraction that holds two atoms together
chemical bonds happen because 2 or more elements are trying to fill up their electron orbital

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19
Q

what is a molecule

A

a molecule is two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

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20
Q

Examples of diatomic molecules

A

O2 and H2

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21
Q

Examples of a compound

A

NaCl

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22
Q

when is an ion formed

A

if an atom has an almost empty or an almost full outer electron shell is likely to form an ion

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23
Q

what is an ion

A

an ion is charged atom or molecule. it is charged because it has either lost or gained electrons

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24
Q

what is an anion

A

an anion is a negatively charged atom or molecule. it has gained an electron

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25
Q

what is a cation

A

a cation is a positively charged atom or molecule. it has lost an electron

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26
Q

All elements on the periodic table are _______

A

neutral

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27
Q

when an electron gains a negative charge it is known as a _____ and has _____

A

anion; one more electron than protons

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28
Q

when an electron gains a positive charge it is known as a _____ and has _____

A

cation; one fewer electrons

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29
Q

Atoms that have an almost_____ outer orbital are likely to _____these electrons and get rid of that outer shell altogether

A

empty; lose

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30
Q

what is an ionic bond

A

when a positive and negative electron attract and do not share electrons

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31
Q

what is a covalent bond

A

is a bond formed when two atoms share pairs of electrons

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32
Q

what is nonpolar covalent bonds

A

involve electrons being shared equally

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33
Q

what is a polar covalent bond

A

is a covalent bond in which the sharing of the electrons pair is unequal

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34
Q

what is electronegativity

A

defined as an atom’s ability to attract and hold electron

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35
Q

what does electronegativity indicate

A

an indication of how much positive charge is in the nucleus

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36
Q

the ____ the numbers, the ____ electronegative an atom is

A

higher; more

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37
Q

what is the electronegativity of hydrogen

A

2.2

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38
Q

what is the electronegativity of carbon

A

2.6

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39
Q

what is the electronegativity of nitrogen

A

3.0

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40
Q

what is the electronegativity of oxygen

A

3.4

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41
Q

what kind of charge will atoms have if they have a higher electronegativity?

A

positive, they will also hold onto the electron pair more strongly than atoms with significantly lower electronegativity

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42
Q

what are the atoms we are supposed to know the electronegativity of?

A

HCNO (if the atoms in the bond are next to each other on that list, the bond will be nonpolar, if it is not it is polar)

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43
Q

what is a hydrogen bond

A

is formed by the charge attraction when a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to one atom is attracted to a second atom

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44
Q

what kind of bond a between a hydrogen and an oxygen

A

polar covalent bond

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45
Q

what does it mean to be hydrophilic

A

describes the property of having an affinity for water

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46
Q

what kind of substances are hydrophilic

A

polar and ionic substances

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47
Q

_____ dissolves_____

A

like, like

48
Q

what does it mean to be hydrophobic

A

the property of not having an affinity for water

49
Q

what kind of substances are hydrophobic

A

nonpolar substances

50
Q

what are the 4 basic types of biomolecules

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nuceotides

51
Q

what must a carbohydrate contain in order to be a monosaccharide?

A

it must contain a carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio (ex: C6 H12 O6)

52
Q

what kind of structure does a carbohydrate have?

A

ring structure

53
Q

what is one of the main purposes of a carbohydrate

A

short-term energy

54
Q

what is the energy storage molecule in humans? what is it used for?

A

glycogen which is used for quick energy, and is metabolized when the blood sugar levels drop

55
Q

what are monosaccharides

A

a single sugar

56
Q

what are disaccharides

A

2 sugars

57
Q

what are polysaccharides

A

made of hundred, even thousands of monosaccarides

58
Q

why cant cells store a lot of glucose

A

because water follows glucose into the cell via osmosis

59
Q

where are carbohydrates stored

A

skeletal muscle and liver of humans

60
Q

what is carb-loading

A

the process of increasing the amount of glycogen stored in the body prior to a race or competition

61
Q

what is the depletion phase of carb-loading

A

a week or two prior to competition, intense exercise and a no carb/high protein diet

62
Q

what is the loading phase of carb-loading

A

a couple of days before a competition, no intense exercise, eating as many carbs as you can take in

63
Q

what is water weight

A

when you burn through the glycogen, you burn through the water as well

64
Q

after you burn through the water weight

A

blood glucose is metabolized first in the human body then glycogen reserves are metabolized and then fat is burned

65
Q

is fat polar or nonpolar

A

fat is nonpolar so it has no water attached to it

66
Q

is glycogen polar or nonpolar

A

it is polar which means it dissolves in water, each ounce of glycogen has as many as 4 ounces of water attached to it

67
Q

what does a lipid consists of

A

nonpolar hydrocarbon chains and rings

68
Q

are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic

A

hydrophobic

69
Q

what is a saturated lipid

A

has as many hydrogen atoms attached as possible
saturated fast are solid at body temo
they have no C=C bonds
they are saturated with hydrogens (lard, grease, fat)

70
Q

what is an unsaturated lipid

A

are liquid at body temp
they have at least one C=C bond
examples: olive oil and vegetable oil

71
Q

if a cookie is chewy, what does this tell us

A

they have a lot of saturated fats

72
Q

what do phospholipids do

A

they do not repel water
their heads dissolve in water while the tails repel water

73
Q

why do their hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions make phospholipids ideal for forming cell membranes

A

if the whole membrane were water soluble, water would rush right into the cell
if the entire membrane were to repel water, nothing dissolved in water would be able to cross the membrane
so, they arrange themselves in a double layer with the hydrophilic heads facing the water on both dies and the hydrophobic tails facing each other and preventing water from rushing into and out of the cell

74
Q

what is an example of a lipid

A

a steriod

75
Q

what is the structure of steroids

A

three 6 carbon rings and 1 carbon ring
they all have the same structure, 4 rings fused together

76
Q

what are steroids made from

A

cholesterol and most are sex hormones like testosterone and estrogen

77
Q

are steroids polar or nonpolar

A

nonpolar

78
Q

what are proteins composed of

A

multiple amino acids (amino acid polymers)

79
Q

how are amino acids determined?

A

they are determined trough DNA processes with transcription and translation

80
Q

what are amino acids

A

composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, a carboxyl group, and a functional group, or R group (20 R groups or 20 different amino acids)

81
Q

what do the r groups give to amino acids

A

different properties (ex: polar vs. nonpolar)

82
Q

what are the different levels of protein structure

A

primary, secondary, and tertiary

83
Q

all proteins have….

A

primary, secondary, and tertiary structure

84
Q

what is a primary structure

A

the actual order of amino acids

85
Q

what is a secondary structure

A

refers to every little coil or fold, or helix all over the protein

86
Q

what is a tertiary structure

A

refers to the overall 3D shape of protein. a proteins tertiary structure IS its function

87
Q

what can happen to proteins if the bonds between amino acids and peptides can be weak?

A

they have be dentured

88
Q

what happens when a protein is dentured

A

it basically unfolds and its tertiary structure is destroyed

89
Q

what is a nucleotide

A

composed of 5 carbon sugar, one or more phosphate groups and a nitrogenous base

90
Q

what two categories do nitrogenous bases fall into

A

pyrimidine (one carbon ring) and purine (two carbon rings)

91
Q

what nitrgenous base are included in pyrimidine

A

cytosine and thymine

92
Q

what nitrgenous base are included in purine

A

guanine and adenine

93
Q

which of TCGA forms bonds with eachother

A

G with C and T with A

94
Q

Carbohydates can be either _____ or ______

A

deoxyribose or ribose

95
Q

what are the four “letters” in RNA

A

G, A, C, U (no T)

96
Q

what are the differences between DNA and RNA

A

DNA has thymine while RNA has uracil
RNA has the 5-carbon sugar
in DNA, sugar is deoxyribose
in RNA, sugar is ribose

97
Q

what is a gene

A

a gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein
chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins

98
Q

what is transcription and where does it occur

A

converting DNA to RNA; occurs in the nucleus

99
Q

what is translation and where does it occur

A

RNA to proteins; occurs in the cytoplasm

100
Q

what informtaion is stored in DNA

A

a set of instructions for how to build proteins

101
Q

what are the steps for transcription

A
  1. RNA polymerase binds to promoter
  2. RNA polymerase then unzips DNA, separates double helix
  3. Free ribonucleotides bind complementary base don DNA sense strand
  4. RNA polymerase moves down DNA. new RNA molecule is synthesized
  5. Product: pre-mRNA trasncript
102
Q

what did the human genome project reveal

A

that most of the DNA of humans does not encode mRNAs or any other RNAs appear to serve no purpose whatsoever in our life cyle

103
Q

genes account for ~___% of human chromosomal DNA

A

98.5

104
Q

About __% of our DNA is pretty identical from one person to another

A

1.5

105
Q

what happens during post transcriptional processing

A

pre-mRNA -> mRNA
1. Introns are removed
2. CAP is added to 5’ of pre-mRNA
3. poly-A tail is added to 3’ end of pre-mRNA

106
Q

what are pre-mRNA transcripts made of?

A

intron and exons

107
Q

what are introns and exons

A

introns are junk and exons are the actual doing information. exons are allowed to exit while introns are just removed bc they are stupid

108
Q

what are the three types of RNA

A

mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA

109
Q

what is mRNA

A

messenger RNA; carries genetic code out of nucleus; made of codons, a codon consists of 3 nucleotides in a row

110
Q

what is rRNA

A

ribosomal RNA: forms RNA component of robosome, allows protein assembly

111
Q

what is tRNA

A

transfer RNA; allows protein assembly; does the job of reading the mRNA and bringing the correct amino acids to build the proteins during translation
anticodons found here. each anticodon recognizes and binds toa specific codon in the mRNA

112
Q

how many possible codons are there

A

64

113
Q

what is the start codon

A

AUG; it codes for the amino acid Methionine

114
Q

what are the stop codons

A

UGA, UAG, UAA are stop codons; they do not code for the addition of an amino and they only signal for the translation to stop

115
Q

how many amino acids are in the following?
ACCUACCAUGGGCCCUUAAA

A

3

116
Q

steps of translation

A
  1. initiation: tRNA, ribosome, and mRNA come together
  2. Peptide bond forms between amino acids
  3. tRNA at P site is released; tRNA at A site moves into P site and Another tRNA moves into now empty A site
  4. peptide bond forms between amino acids

BIOL 2160 (3 decks)

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