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Biology > Unit 1.1 - inorganic ions and carbohydrates > Flashcards

Unit 1.1 - inorganic ions and carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

Which four inorganic ions are in living organisms? (include their symbols please lol)

A

Magnesium, Iron, Phosphate and Calcium
Mg2+ Fe2+ PO42- Ca2+

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2
Q

Which molecule is magnesium an essential component for?

A

Chlorophyll

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3
Q

What does clorophyll do?

A

Is a key part of photosynthesis by trapping lights energy

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4
Q

Where is iron found within the body?

A

The haemoglobin in the blood

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5
Q

Why do we need enough iron in our diets? Give two reasons.

A

1 - to replace red blood cells as their life spans are temporary
2 - To avoid Anemia

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6
Q

How do we give plants their phosphate?

A

Compost

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7
Q

Where are phosphates found?

A

In the plasma membrane (as part of the phospholipid molecule), in nucleic acids and in ATP

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8
Q

Where do plants and humans get their inorganic ions?

A

Plants - soil
Humans - food

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9
Q

Why is calcium an important inorganic ion?

A

Gives strength to teeth and bones, as well as plant cell walls

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10
Q

What can Carbon be described as?

A

The foundation of biological molecules

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11
Q

What is Carbons valeance? What does this mean for it?

A

4, meaning it can form covalent bonds with up to 4 other atoms

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12
Q

What kind of structures can carbon form and what bigger thing does this form?

A

Straight, branched or closed chains, forming the skeleton of many biological molecules

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13
Q

What do all carbohydrates contain?

A

Oxygen, Carbon and Hydrogen

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14
Q

What do you call a basic unit of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharide

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15
Q

What’s the phrase for two monosaccherides?

A

Disaccheride

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16
Q

What’s the phrase for multiple monosaccherides?

A

Polysaccheride

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17
Q

What are polysaccherides a type of?

A

Polymer

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18
Q

What’s so special about monosaccherides and why is this the case?

A

They’re the building blocks for other larger carbohydrates, as they’re sweet and soluble

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19
Q

What’s the general formula of monosaccherides?

A

CH20

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20
Q

How can monosaccherides be grouped?

A

Based off of how many Carbon atoms they contain

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21
Q

How do we work out the formula for any type of monosaccheride?

A

Multiply everything inside the bracket by whatever the number is (the number of carbon atoms in it)

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22
Q

What are three types of monosaccheride sugars and how many carbon atoms are present in these?

A

Triose —–> 3
Pentose —-> 5
Hexose —–> 6

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23
Q

Give an example of a triose, pentose and a hexose monosaccheride

A

triose —-> pyruvate
pentose –> ribose
hexose —-> glucose

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24
Q

What do carbon atoms of monosaccherides do when dissolved in water?

A

Form a ring
They can alter their bindings to make straight chains with ring chains in equilibrum

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25
Q

What are glucoses isomers?

A

alffa (a-) and beta (B-)

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26
Q

What’s the difference between alpha and beta glucose monosaccharides?

A

The positioning of the OH (hydroxide) and H (hydrogen)
On the alpha molecule, the H is on top and vice versa

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27
Q

How does numbering the carbons on a monosaccheride work?

A

Carbon 1 is the one connected to the oxygen, then work clockwise from there

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28
Q

What does the tiny difference between the alffa and beta glucose molecules mean for them?

A

they act differently when making new substances

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29
Q

What is the triose monosaccheride important for?

A

Metabolism, respiration and photosynthesis

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30
Q

What is the pentose monosaccheride important for?

A

Parts of neuclotides ( eg - deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA, ATP and ADP)

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31
Q

What are hexose monosaccherides important for?

A

A key example is glucose, which is a source of energy in respiration.
C-C and C-H bonds are broken to release this energy, which is tranferred to create adenosine triphophate (ATP)

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32
Q

What’s the key function of ALL of the monosaccherides?

A

They’re the building blocks for larger molecules

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33
Q

Which polysaccherides does the hexose monosaccheride glucose make?

A

Starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin

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34
Q

How do disaccharides form?

A

Two monosaccherides react, forming a glycosidic bond through the elimination of water in a condensation reaction

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35
Q

What’s the type of bond in a dissacharide?

A

glycosidic bond

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36
Q

What type of reaction is required for a disaccharide to form?

A

Condensation reaction (to remove water)

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37
Q

Three examples of disaccharides involving glucose and their formations

A

glucose + glucose –> maltose
glucose + fructose –> sucrose
glucose + galactose –> lactose

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38
Q

Where does nature get its maltose?

A

Germinating seeds

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39
Q

Where does nature get its lactose?

A

Milk

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40
Q

Where does nature get its sucrose?

A

Sugar and fruits

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41
Q

What’s the opposite reaction of a condensation reaction? How does this work?

A

Hydrolysis is where water is added. As it’s a metabolite, it can take part in metabolic reactions, like breaking glycosidic bonds in disaccharides

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42
Q

What’s important to remember when writing the equations of disaccharides formed from monosaccharides? Why?

A

To write the water molecule separately, taking 2 H’s and a single 0 from the expected formula, as a condensation reaction was required for it to form in the first place

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43
Q

What type of reaction is condensation?

A

Polymerisation, where monomers and joined to create a polymer

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44
Q

What does hydrolysis do in terms of polymerisation?

A

Breaks polymer bonds to release monomers

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45
Q

What do carbohydrates and proteins form polymers from?

A

Repeating monomer units

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46
Q

Name four polysaccherides and the molecule/monosaccheride which makes them up

A

Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin

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47
Q

What’s starch’s main purpose?

A

Allows plants to store glucose

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48
Q

What is starch made up of?

A

Glucose monomers

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49
Q

What are the benefits of starch polysaccherides?

A

Easily be added or removed
Compact
No osmotic effect on the cell

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50
Q

Which polysaccheride has two types? What are they?

A

Starch. They are…..
amylose
amylopectin

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51
Q

Describe amylose

A

Unbranched and coils

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52
Q

What type of glucose monomers are in amylose and what do they do?

A

Alpha glucose monomers
Each one added forms a C1-C4 glycoacidic bond with the adjacent glucose molecule

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53
Q

Describe amylopectin

A

Branched

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54
Q

What type of bonds does amylopectin form?

A

C1-C4 and C1-C6 glycosidic bonds

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55
Q

What makes starch a good storage polysaccheride?

A

Insoluble (no osmotic effect on the cell)
Easily hydrolysed to release glucose

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56
Q

What is the polysaccheride glycogens purpose?

A

Main storage product in animals

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57
Q

What can glycogen be compared to? What’s the same and what’s the main difference?

A

Amylopectin (type of starch polysaccharide)
Similar structure (glucose molecules held by glycoacidic bonds between C1-C4 and C1-C6)
Glycogen has shorter C1-C4 and more C1-C6 branch points (more branched)

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58
Q

What’s are the benefits that both starch and glycogen share?

A

Easily hydrolysed to a glucose, which is soluble
Can be transported wherever energy is needed

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59
Q

Which polysaccheride can be found in plant cell walls?

A

Cellulose

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60
Q

Where can the cellulose polysaccheride be found?

A

In plant cell walls

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61
Q

What is cellulose made up of?

A

Many long beta glucose units, joined by C1-C4 glycoacidic bonds
B bond rotates adjacent glucose molecules by 180 degrees, allowing hydrogen bonds to form between OH groups of adjacent cellulose chains

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62
Q

What do adjacent cellulose chains form?

A

Crossbridges

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63
Q

How many cellulose molecules are tightly cross linked?

A

60-70

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64
Q

What do crosslinking cellulose molecules create?

A

Microfibrils

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65
Q

What are microfibrils?

A

They’re bunched together in bundles to form fibres

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66
Q

What do microfibrils in cellulose give it? What’s this ideal for?

A

A high tensile strength, making it an ideal structural polysaccharide

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67
Q

Which polysaccaride is found in insect exo-skeletons and cell walls of fungi?

A

Chitin

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68
Q

Where is the polysaccharide Chitin found?

A

In insect exo-skeletons and cell walls of fungi

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69
Q

What’s the polysaccharide chitin made up of?

A

Beta glucose molecules and some hydroxide groups replaced with nitrogen - containing acetylamine groups

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70
Q

What type of groups does chitin contain due to the nitrogen replacing some hydroxide groups?

A

Acetylamine groups

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71
Q

What’s the benefit of the polysaccheride chitin? Which other polysaccharide is this similar to?

A

The cross bonds (microfibrils) formed between polysaccharide chains give it structural stability, like cellulose

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72
Q

Where do all biochemical reactions take place?

A

In an aqueous solution

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73
Q

What sort of reactions all happen in an aqueous solution?

A

Biochemical reactions

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74
Q

Inorganic meaning

A

Not consisting or deriving from living matter

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75
Q

Name 4 phosphate containing atoms

A

ATP
Nucleic acid
Amino acids/Proteins
Chlorophyll

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76
Q

What are the most common lipids?

A

Triglycerides

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77
Q

What are triglycerides?

A

Fats and oils

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78
Q

What do lipids contain?

A

Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (low contents of oxygen)

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79
Q

Which element in lipids is low in content?

A

Oxygen

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80
Q

What have the same contents as lipids?

A

Carbohydrates

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81
Q

What happens to triglycerides in water? Why?

A

Insoluble as they’re non-polar

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82
Q

What are triglycerides soluble in?

A

Ethanol, Cloroform, Ether

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83
Q

How are triglycerides formed?

A

A condensation reaction between glycerol and fatty acids

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84
Q

What’s glycerol?

A

A type of alcohol (part of the condensation reaction to form triglycerides)

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85
Q

What are the fatty acids required to make triglycerides?

A

Organic molecules which have a -COOH group attached to a long hydrocarbon tail

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86
Q

What is the name of the bond formed in the condensation reaction to form triglycerides?

A

Ester bond

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87
Q

How can ester bonds be broken?

A

Through hydrolysis

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88
Q

How many ester bonds are in triglycerides?

A

3

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89
Q

How many water molecules are removed in a condensation reaction to form triglycerides?

A

3

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90
Q

What are the types of fatty acids?

A

Saturated and unsaturated

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91
Q

What are the characteristics of saturated fatty acids?

A

-No double bonds between neighbouring carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon tail
-Carries the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms
-Solid (saturated)

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92
Q

Which lipids tend to be saturated?

A

Animal lipids

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93
Q

What are the characteristics of unsaturated fatty acids?

A

-Double bond between carbon atoms in neighbouring hydrocarbon chains (=melt more easily- most oils are unsaturated)
-Don’t carry the maximum number of hydrogen atoms

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94
Q

What makes fatty acids and lipids melt more easily? What are most oils therefore?

A

Double bonds, so most oils are unsaturated as these have double bonds

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95
Q

What do you call an unsaturated fat molecule with one double bond between carbon atoms?

A

monounsaturated

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96
Q

What do you call an unsaturated fat molecule with more than two double bonds between carbon atoms?

A

Polyunsaturated

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97
Q

Describe animal fats

A

-High proportion of saturated fatty acids
-Solid at room temperature

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98
Q

Describe plant lipids

A

-Unsaturated fatty acids
-Liquid at room temperature (oils)

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99
Q

Triglycerides uses

A

-Protect internal organs from physical damage
-Insulate the body from heat loss
-Long-term energy store

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100
Q

What are the effects of a high fat diet on our health?

A

Stroke, high blood pressure, kidney failure, being overweight, heart attacks+disease

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101
Q

Where are the coronary arteries?

A

In the heart

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102
Q

What’s the name of the arteries in the heart?

A

Coronary arteries

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103
Q

What are LDL and HDL?

A

Cholesterol

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104
Q

What does LDL do in the coronary arteries?

A

Stick to the artery walls, forming plaque

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105
Q

What does HDL do in the coronary arteries?

A

Carries LDL away from the artery walls

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106
Q

What are phospholipids?

A

A special type of lipid

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107
Q

What is special about phospholipids?

A

One of the three fatty acid chains is replaced by a phosphate group, which is polar, making it soluble in water

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108
Q

What’s special about phosphate groups?

A

They’re polar, making them soluble in water

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109
Q

What features does a phospholipid have?

A

-Hydrophilic head
-2 Hydrophobic fatty tails

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110
Q

Describe the structure of a phospholipid

A

Glycerol
2 fatty acids
Phosphate group

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111
Q

What are the functions of phospholipids?

A

-Component of cell membranes
-Lipid transport as part of lipoproteins

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112
Q

Name two important structures that phospholipids make up

A

-Phospholipid bilayer
-Plasma membrane

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113
Q

Food sources of phospholipids

A

Egg yolks, liver, soybeans and peanuts

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114
Q

What do proteins contain?

A

The usual carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
PLUS (making them different to carbohydrates and lipids)
nitrogen
possibly - phosphorus and sulphur

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115
Q

What are proteins?

A

Polymers made from the monomers, amino acids

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116
Q

What do you call a chain of amino acids?

A

Polypeptide

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117
Q

How many different amino acids are there?

A

20

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118
Q

What determines a proteins function?

A

Its shape

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119
Q

How many different proteins are there?

A

Thousands, with its shape determined by a specific sequence of amino acids in the chain

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120
Q

What do amino acids in the chain determine in a protein?

A

Its shape

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121
Q

What type of carbon is in the center of an amino acid?

A

Alpha carbon

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122
Q

What makes up the amino group in an amino acid (formula) ?

A

NH2-

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123
Q

Describe the amino group in an amino acid

A

Can be basic or alkaline

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124
Q

What’s the carboxyl group made up of in an amino acid?

A

COOH

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125
Q

Describe the carboxyl group in an amino acid

A

Acidic

126
Q

What’s the simplest amino acid make up?

A

Glycine, with the variable R as a H

127
Q

What are the three groups on an amino acids structure?

A

Amino group, carboxyl group, variable group

128
Q

What are the two varieties of amino acids?

A

Essential and nonessential

129
Q

How do we get our essential amino acids?

A

Cannot be synthesized by our bodies, therefore from our diets

130
Q

How do we get non-essential amino acids?

A

Can be synthesized by our bodies

131
Q

What does a buffer do?

A

Maintain the pH of a reaction

132
Q

How are peptide bonds formed in proteins?

A

Through a condensation reaction

133
Q

What are peptide bonds formed between?

A

Amino acids

134
Q

What do you call two amino acids joined together by a peptide bond?

A

Dipeptide

135
Q

How would you break the peptide bond between amino acids?

A

Hydrolysis (add water)

136
Q

What are the different possible protein structures?

A

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

137
Q

Type of bonds in the primary protein structure

A

Peptide

138
Q

Describe the primary protein structure

A

Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, bonded with peptide bonds. The sequence is determined by the DNA, with one gene coding for 1 polypeptide.

139
Q

What is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain determined by and how?

A

The DNA, with each gene coding for 1 polypeptide

140
Q

What type of bonds are present in the secondary protein structure?

A

Peptide and hydrogen

141
Q

Describe the secondary protein structure

A

How the polpeptide twists to form an alpha helix or folds to form a beta pleated sheet, held by hydrogen bonds

142
Q

What are the two possibilities with a secondary protein structure?

A

Alpha helix or a beta folded sheet

143
Q

Describe the tertiary protein structure

A

Occurs when certain attractions are present between alpha helices and beta pleated sheets. They fold in a specific way to form a definite 3D structure which is more complex and compact. This is maintained by disulphide, ionic, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds.

144
Q

What type of bonds are present in the tertiary protein structure?

A

Disulphide, ionic, hydrophobic interactions (not bonds!) and hydrogen bonds (and peptide!)

145
Q

Describe disulphide bonds

A

One of the strongest and most important bonds between proteins, which occur between two cysteine amino acids

146
Q

What does a disulphide bond appear between?

A

Two cysteine amino acids

147
Q

Which type of bond is involved in all levels of structure?

A

Hydrogen bonds

148
Q

Where are hydrophobic interactions present?

A

Between non-polar sections of the protein

149
Q

Which protein structure do enzymes have?

A

Tertiary protein structure

150
Q

Why do enzymes have the tertiary protein structure?

A

Maintains the shape of its active site

151
Q

Describe the quantenary protein structure

A

A protein consisting of more than one polypeptide chain in tertiary form, associated with non-protein groups

152
Q

Which protein structure is associated with non-protein groups?

A

Quaternary protein structure

153
Q

Name an example protein which has the quaternary protein structure

A

Haemoglobin

154
Q

Describe haemoglobin

A

-Quaternary protein structure
-4 polypeptide chains (4 genes)
-Center of each chain - iron containing group, haem
-Complex

155
Q

What is at the center of each chain in a haemoglobin?

A

The iron containing group, haem

156
Q

What’s so odd about phospholipids?

A

One end is soluble in water and the other isn’t

157
Q

What’s special about the hydrophillic head of the phospholipids?

A

It’s polar - interacts with water

158
Q

What’s so special about phospholipids two hydrophobic fatty tails?

A

They’re non-polar - do not interact with water

159
Q

Which part of a phospholipid is polar and which is non-polar?

A

Hydrophillic head - polar
Hydrophobic fatty tails - non-polar

160
Q

What type of bonds does carbon form?

A

Covalent

161
Q

Which type of bond did I originally spell wrong a few times before and need to remember?

A

Glycosidic bonds

162
Q

What type of bond is used to form a disaccharide?

A

1-4 glycosidic bond

163
Q

What’s the difference between the two isomers of glucose?

A

The positioning of the H and the OH by the C-1 atom

164
Q

Why is it good that starch is insoluble?

A

Lots of soluble substances would cause the cell to swell and burst

165
Q

What’s an appropriate description of amyloses structure?

A

Alpha helix

166
Q

Why is it good that amylopectin and glycogen are branched?

A

They can release lots of glucose quickly as there’s lots of ends for enzymes to react simultaneously

167
Q

What type of substances can you see the most clearly through a microscope? What’s an example of one?

A

Insoluble ones like starch

168
Q

Why is glycogen more branched than amylopectin?

A

Animals need energy faster than animals

169
Q

What are microfibrils ideal for?

A

The cell wall structure

170
Q

What type of glycosidic bond forms between two monosaccharides?

A

B (1-4)

171
Q

What can a -COOH group be described as?

A

Carboxyl group

172
Q

What does non-polar actually mean?

A

That there’s no charges on the outside of the molecule

173
Q

Which type of fatty acid could make more hydrogen bonds?

A

Unsaturated as there’s double bonds

174
Q

Which type of fatty acid has a bend in the chain and why?

A

Unsaturated, as a result of the double bond

175
Q

What type of fatty acid is the easiest to digest?

A

Polyunsaturated

176
Q

Which type of fatty acid is better for our general health?

A

Polyunsaturated

177
Q

Example of a saturated fatty acid

A

Butyric acid

178
Q

Example of a monounsaturated fatty acid

A

Oleic acid

179
Q

Example of a polyunsaturated fatty acid

A

Linoleic acid

180
Q

What’s the layer of fat that the triglycerides form?

A

Adipose layer

181
Q

What can your genetics give you a high level of?

A

HDL

182
Q

What can give you higher levels of HDL?

A

genetics

183
Q

What is the name for the plaque formation by LDL in the blood cells? What can this cause?

A

Artheroma
Block up blood vessels and cause heart attacks

184
Q

What’s the only way phospholipid can survive in the water environment in the cytoplasm?

A

The formation of the phospholipid bilayer

185
Q

What are sucrose/maltose/lactose?

A

Molecules

186
Q

What are hexose/pentose/triose?

A

Types of monosaccharide

187
Q

What are alpha and beta to glucose?

A

Forms of glucose

188
Q

Fructose structure

A

Hexagon, the exact same formula as glucose, just the CH20H is in two places

189
Q

Galactose structure

A

Like glucose but Flipped HO and H at C-4

190
Q

Ribose structure

A

Like glucose but with 5 carbons

191
Q

Deoxiribose structure

A

Hydroxide group replaced with hydrogen (hence the name) - 5 carbon atoms

192
Q

Why does amylose coil?

A

Due to the formation of hydrogen bonds

193
Q

Why is chitin not a true carbohydrate?

A

It includes nitrogen

194
Q

How many layers do phospholipids form in a cell membrane?

A

Bilayer = double layer

195
Q

How many layers do phospholipids form in water?

A

Single layer

196
Q

Which part of an amino acid could form a disulphide bond?

A

Variable (R)

197
Q

Which part of an amino acid gives it acidic properties?

A

Carboxyl group

198
Q

Which part of an amino acid gives it basic or alkaline properties?

A

Amino group

199
Q

How could two isomers of a protein molecule be produced by the same reactants?

A

Different amino acid with free amino/carboxylic acid in each dipeptide

200
Q

How many polypeptide chains are in the tertiary protein structure?

A

Only 1

201
Q

What does a quaternary protein structure form?

A

2+ polypeptides form a functional molecule

202
Q

What’s the difference between adipose and artheroma (I’ve gotten confused between them in past questions)?

A

Adipose layer - layer of fat formed by triglycerides
Artheroma- plaque formation by LDL

203
Q

Which elements join together in a peptide bond between amino acids?

A

C and N (let the O and the H be attached to them)

204
Q

Why are triglycerides not considered polymers?

A

Glycerol and fatty acids have different structures

(don’t just give a reference to monomers)

205
Q

What does the fact that unsaturated fatty acids don’t contain the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms mean for them?

A

They’re not fully saturated

206
Q

Where do the double bonds form in the hydrocarbon chain of fatty acids?

A

Between C=C

207
Q

What type of insulation do triglycerides give us?

A

Thermal

208
Q

Describe insects’ exo skeletons thanks to chitin?

A

strong and tough

209
Q

What reaction is required to break bonds?

A

Hydrolysis

210
Q

Lipid uses in plants

A

-Energy storage
-Leaf waterproofing
-Membrane structure

211
Q

What’s it important to do if a question asks us to “name” an element?

A

Write it out in full, not just the letter

212
Q

Name a COMPARISON between the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid chains

A

Fewer hydrogen bonds in the unsaturated chain

213
Q

How do you know a triglyceride IS a triglyceride and to label it this instead of a lipid?

A

THREE glycerol molecules and THREE fatty acid chains and THREE ester bonds

214
Q

What do I do in a question asking to explain why a protein has a quaternary structure?

A

State what I see
e.g - four polypeptide chains, of two alpha and two beta subunits in tertiary form combined

215
Q

What are alpha helices maintained by?

A

Hydrogen bonds

216
Q

Which bonds maintain the 3D shape of a polypeptide structure?

A

-Disulphide
-Ionic
-Hydrogen
-Hydrophobic interactions
(don’t say peptide here)

217
Q

What are alpha and beta NOT?

A

Molecules

218
Q

What’s a clue to a question referring to hydrolysis, not condensation?

A

“Breaking down” or “breaking” bonds

219
Q

What are the key elements present as inorganic ions in living organisms?

A

Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca2+ and Po43-

220
Q

Name two examples of things proteins are important in

A

-In cell membranes
-Form antibodies to fight disease

221
Q

What do the 20 different amino acids do?

A

Give proteins different chemical properties

222
Q

What can amino acids also act as in terms of pH?

A

Buffers

223
Q

What does the zwitterion amino acid have? How?

A

A neutral pH and a positive and negative charge as the amino acid has either picked up an extra electron in an acidic solution or lost one in an alkaline solution

224
Q

Which amino acid has a neutral pH and a positive and a negative charge?

A

Zwitterion

225
Q

What does the amino group on an amino acid do in an acidic solution?

A

picks up an extra hydrogen to form a neutral zwitterion

226
Q

What does the carboxyl group in an amino acid do in alkaline solution?

A

Loses the extra hydrogen to form a neutral zwitterion

227
Q

How do you figure out the amount of amino acids in a protein diagram?

A

Count the peptide bonds (N-C=O)
One more amino acid

228
Q

What does the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain effect?

A

The properties and nature of the finished protein

229
Q

What are the types of bond on a secondary protein structure and between what?

A

Hydrogen bonds between amino acids

230
Q

Hydrophobic…what?

A

Interactions
NOT bonds

231
Q

Which type of bond do we not mention in the tertiary protein structure that MAINTAINS the 3D shape?

A

Peptide bond

232
Q

Describe the tertiary protein form

A

Globular

233
Q

Which protein structure is globular?

A

Teritary

234
Q

What do hydrophobic interactions do?

A

Try to fold into themselves inside the molecule to not be in the outside where they could come into contact with water

235
Q

What type of bond is the disulphide bond?

A

Covalent

236
Q

What do disulphide bonds appear between?

A

Two cysteine (S-S) amino acids

237
Q

What do cysteine molecules contain?

A

Sulphur

238
Q

Which bond is most important in maintaining the shape of protein molecules and why?

A

Disulphide bonds as they are strong covalent bond

239
Q

Where does a disulphide bond form between two cysteine amino acids?

A

Between sulphur atoms

240
Q

What does haemoglobin contain and what is this?

A

Haem- a prosthetic, inorganic group

241
Q

What do the four protein structures have?

A

Functional properties

242
Q

What are fibrous and globular proteins?

A

Structural proteins

243
Q

What type of amino acid doesn’t work anymore?

A

Denatured

244
Q

Compare the solubility of globular vs fibrous proteins

A

Globular - partly/wholly soluble
Fibrous - Insoluble

245
Q

Compare the shapes of globular and fibrous proteins

A

Globular - 3D structure formed by folding the 2° structure
Fibrous - Twisted into a rope like fibre

246
Q

Example of a globular protein

A

Haemoglobin

247
Q

Examples of fibrous proteins

A

Collagen and Elastin

248
Q

Amount of polypeptide molecules in globular and fibrous proteins

A

Globular - 4
Fibrous - 3

249
Q

Difference between the polypeptide molecules themselves in globular and fibrous proteins + genes needed to code for them

A

Globular - each polypeptide is different = 4 genes needed to code for
Fibrous - Each is the same (1 gene to code for)

250
Q

Name for non-protein groups

A

Haem groups

251
Q

Which type of protein is associated with non-protein groups?

A

Globular (not fibrous)

252
Q

Compare the highest level of protein structure in globular and fibrous proteins

A

Globular - quaternary
Fibrous - secondary

253
Q

What do you call an amino acid that doesn’t work anymore?

A

Denatured

254
Q

Denatured amino acid

A

Doesn’t work anymore

255
Q

Where is the fibrous protein collagen found?

A

In the skin

256
Q

Where is the fibrous protein elastin found?

A

In connective tissues

257
Q

Describe collagen (4)

A
  • alpha helix
    -tensile strength
    -flexible
    -elastic
258
Q

Why do we form wrinkles when we get older?

A

Our skin produces less collagen, so the skin gets less flexible

259
Q

What is a lack of collagen responsible for?

A

Wrinkles

260
Q

Keratin

A

Fibrous protein found in connective tissue

261
Q

Why is it important to eat a varied diet?

A

As some essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by our bodies and therefore have to be provided by our diets. Without them, we will become malnourished as we need all 20 amino acids for necessary proteins

262
Q

Which group picks up an extra hydrogen in an acidic solution to form a zwitterion?

A

Amino group

263
Q

Which group loses the extra hydrogen in an alkaline solution to form a zwitterion?

A

Carboxyl group

264
Q

In what type of solution does the amino group of an amino acid pick up an extra hydrogen to form a zwitterion?

A

Acidic

265
Q

In what type of solution does the carboxyl group lose the extra hydrogen to form a zwitterion?

A

Alkaline

266
Q

How are zwitterions actually formed?

A

In an acidic solution, the amino group of an amino acid picks up an extra hydrogen
In an alkaline solution, the carboxyl group loses a hydrogen
This forms a zwitterion that has both a positive and a negative charge and is an example of amino acids acting as buffers that maintain the pH of a solution

267
Q

Important points on disulphide bonds

A

In tertiary protein structure - one of the strongest and most important bonds (covalent, maintains 3D shape)
Between two cysteine amino acids (S-S)

268
Q

Reducing sugar

A

Is able to donate an electron to reduce another compound

269
Q

When drawing the charges on hydrogen and oxygen atoms for water, what must we put with them?

A

Little weird d symbol to show how small the charges are on their own

270
Q

Compare the resistance that cellulose and chitin have to water?

A

Cellulose - gaps between fibres makes it freely permeable to water
Chitin - more waterproof

271
Q

What forms microfibrils in cellulose and chitin?

A

Hydrogen bonds

272
Q

Name one of the properties of an unsaturated fatty acid due to its number of C-H bonds

A

-More than carbohydrates
-Liberate twice as much energy as carbohydrates
-Function as an energy reserve in plants

273
Q

What causes unsaturated fatty acids to function as energy reserves in plants?

A

High numbers of C-H bonds (librate twice as much energy as carbohydrates)

274
Q

What happens to a non-reducing sugar if its hydrolysed?

A

Forms a reducing sugar

275
Q

What does haemoglobin do?

A

It’s a transport protein - it carries oxygen

276
Q

How many different polypeptide chains does haemoglobin consist of and what are these?

A

2
2 alpha and 2 beta

277
Q

Name two differences between the Golgi Body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Golgi body
-Packaging + assembling glycoproteins
R.E.R
-Storing + protein synthesis

278
Q

What does a phospholipid form in comparison to water and what does this give it?

A

A bilayer, instead of a single layer
Covers 2x the surface area

279
Q

How much more/less surface area does the phospholipid bilayer cover in a cell in comparison to water?

A

2x more (its a bilayer)

280
Q

What does unsaturated fat affect the levels of?

A

HDL and LDL

281
Q

How does unsaturated fat affect HDL and LDL levels?

A

HDL - increases
LDL - decreases

282
Q

What’s the main function of triglycerides in cells?

A

As an energy store
(the other two are more fat cells, not triglycerides themselves)

283
Q

What do we circle when circling the R-group in amino acids?

A

The r group and the entire bit attached to it

284
Q

What does an increased level of LDL in lead to and where?

A

Artheroma in the arteries

285
Q

Which inorganic ion is important in plant cell walls?

A

Calcium

286
Q

What are all monosaccharides?

A

Reducing sugars

287
Q

Which group of components are all reducing sugars?

A

Monosaccharides

288
Q

What are the only elements in polysaccharides?

A

C, O and H

289
Q

What does cohesion tension occur between and how?

A

Between H20 molecules - hydrogen bonding between H (delta plus) and O (delta minus)

290
Q

What’s the nitrate source used for?

A

N source for…
Protein
Nucleic acid
ATP
Amino acids

291
Q

Is water organic and why?

A

No because it doesn’t contain carbon

292
Q

What does water not containing carbon make it?

A

Inorganic

293
Q

What makes something organic?

A

Containing carbon

294
Q

Name 5 phosphate containing compounds

A

Protein
Nuclei acids
ATP
Amino acids
Chlorophyll

295
Q

How can we recognise a nucleic acid from a diagram?

A

Pentose shape

296
Q

What does a Pentose shape imply in a diagram?

A

Nucleic acid

297
Q

What does glycogen store in animals?

A

Glucose

298
Q

How is glucose stored in animals?

A

With glycogen

299
Q

A high proportion of which type of fatty acid can lead to an increase in LDL (“bad” Cholestrol)?

A

Saturated fatty acids

300
Q

What can an increased amount of LDL in the artery walls lead to?

A

Cardiovascular disease

301
Q

What does the fact that triglycerides are insoluble make them?

A

Osmotically inert

302
Q

What provides the most energy - triglycerides or starch and why?

A

Triglycerides as they contain a high number of C-H bonds that are also stronger, therefore they liberate twice as much energy as the carbohydrate

303
Q

Why does starch have no osmotic effect on a cell?

A

It’s insoluble

304
Q

What does the fact that starch is insoluble mean?

A

It has no osmotic effect on the cell

305
Q

What’s strongest - peptide bonds or hydrogen bonds?

A

Peptide bonds

306
Q

Why is water a polar molecule?

A

H has a slight positive charge and O has a slight negative charge

307
Q

How do the inorganic ions enter root tissue?

A

Active transport

308
Q

Where specifically in a plant does calcium strengthen?

A

Plant cell walls

309
Q

What is the main thing LDL increases the risk of?

A

Artheroma in the arteries

310
Q

Why does artheroma increase the risk of a heart attack?

A

Reduced blood supply to heart muscle

311
Q

Which glucose isomer is galactose similar to?

A

Alpha

Biology (26 decks)

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