Week 2

Question 1

Object Permanence

Answer 1

a child’s understanding that an object continues to exist even when it can no longer be observed directly - milestone in Piaget’s model

Evidence that 5 month old infants do have a representation of objects when they cant see them - modern methods

Question 2

Piaget’s Influence is because… 3

Answer 2

He worked and published in the field for nearly 60 yrs

Examined development from the neonatal period to late adolescence

Range of topics of cognitive development - physical properties, time, language,

Question 3

Stage theory

Answer 3

development is NOT continuous - move suddenly to a new stage after spending some period of time in each stage with an unchanging skills set -

Abrubt qualitative change across a variety of domains - discontinuous - caterpillar to butterfly

Question 4

Sensorimotor - birth-2yrs

Answer 4

Trial and error - learn by associating behavior with sensory experiences

The association of physical interactions with objects is virtually synonymous with cognitive development at this stage- the infant interacts with the physical and social world on a physical basis (cognitive development driven by physical interaction). -
The infant is perceptually bound (according to Piaget - can only think about things that they see). She makes progress by associating sensory experiences and her own actions

Language development starts

Object Permanence at 8m accord to Piaget

Question 5

Preoperational 2-7 yrs

Answer 5

In this stage, the child learns to use symbols (math, language, pretend play) such as words and numbers. Pretend play is considered symbolic and develops in this stage.- later debunked

Cognitive development is rapid including - language, memory and pretend play

Understand past and future but knowledge is still very egocentric

Thinking is concrete - think and reason about things that they can see and touch but have difficulty with hypotheticals or abstract

Question 6

Concrete operational 7-11

Answer 6

The child can now perform mental operations, which allows logical problem-solving. The child can still only apply these operations to concrete objects.

Understand and use operations such as inference, classification, reversibility and conservation

Thinking is less egocentric

Children understand concrete operations such as conservation of number, mass and liquids but cannot yet apply to abstract or hypothetical content

Question 7

Formal Operational 12-adulthood - after puberty

Answer 7

The child can now perform mental operations on abstract or hypothetical entities - non-concrete reasoning

Adept at using symbols and can relate them to abstract concepts

Can think about multiple variables to predict outcomes and can formulate hypotheses about either concrete or abstract relationships

No new structures develop after this stage

Question 8

Sources of Developmental Change - Assimilation

Answer 8

: Interpreting new info in terms of previously understood theories and concepts ex. Knows about cows sees a deer and thinks its a cow

New object is assimilated into the familiar scheme

Question 9

Sources of Developmental Change - Accomodation

Answer 9

process of changing one’s current theory, understanding or concept in order to cope with new information

Learn about new category of animals after finding the deer - refine understanding

Question 10

Sources of Developmental Change - Equilibration

Answer 10

balancing assimilation and accommodation to maintain a stable understanding of the world while still allowing for development

Accommodate every time - hard to make sense of the world
Never accommodate - hard for learning and development to take place

Disequilibrium - not satisfied that they can make sense of a new experience with their current understanding
Understanding changes -> equilibrium

Question 11

Constructivism

Answer 11

Piagets theory is constructivist - child does not passively absorb info but actively shapes the info as observations are made - not a blank slate

A theory of knowledge acquisition that states
that children construct their own meaning
of their observations and experiences by
interpreting observations and experiences
through the lens of the child’s own expectations and prior beliefs

Two children observing the same event could impart very different meanings to the event
Novel - emphasis on role of the child

Question 12

Shortcomings of Piaget (3)

Answer 12

1. Underestimated cognitive competence of infants and children - due to advances in methods
   - Relied largely on children’s ability to explicitly report their own understandings
   - Used difficult tasks with a conservative bias with respect to how they could be interpreted - if a child failed a task did they lack the ability?
2. Stage like cognitive development is overstated
   - Stage determined modes of thinking in many domains and thinking did not develop until the child moved into a new stage
   - No evidence of concurrent changes across a lange number of domains at the moment of stage change
   - Variability - depends on the subject that determines thinking and modes vary
   - Math, language and pretend play don’t all happen at the same time
3. Underestimated the importance of social and emotional contributions to development - focused on cognitive development and the child’s interaction
   Huge influence of other people on a child

Question 13

Associationism

Answer 13

An approach that encompasses learning
theories such as classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, behaviorism and social
learning theory. This perspective suggests that
people have only general-purpose learning
mechanisms, allowing them to associate
one stimulus with another. According to this
perspective, the newborn mind is a blank slate

Learning happens by associating one stimulus with another or by associating a behavior with a reward or punishment

Question 14

Classical conditioning -

Answer 14

neutral stimulus becomes associated with psychologically meaningful stimulus - dogs and bell

Unconditioned stimulus - served to elicit the response before the training - food

Unconditioned response - response to this stimulus - salivation

Pair bell with unconditioned stimulus - neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus eliciting the conditioned response

Question 15

Behaviorism

Answer 15

Watson - little albert

Little Albert Experiments
Developing 11m showed a white rat - paired with loud startling noise
Developed a lasting phobia of rats and other animals
Can be used for systematic desensitization - expose people with phobias to their fear - pair with reward

Advocated for strict discipline - regimented feeding schedule - conditioned to eat at regular intervals - kid would not be hungry between meals

Discouraged affection

Question 16

Operant Conditioning

Answer 16

A type of learning in which a specific behavior
becomes more or less likely as a result of
reinforcers or punishes

Consequence that makes the behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer - negative or positive

Consequence that makes the behavior less likely - punisher

BF Skinner - empiricist - child is passively shaped by their environment
Extreme - every behavior the result of operant conditioning - rewards and punishments that came before - could create a perfect society
Attention could serve as a reinforcer - attention seeking behavior ex. Time out

Question 17

Social Learning Theory

Answer 17

Bandura - explain behavior in terms of stimulus and response learning
Process by which adults taught children to behave as proper adults

Observational learning - actor’s behavior changed as a result of observing a model - imitation

Witnessing a punishment could affect likelihood which operant couldn’t explain

Question 18

The Standard Social Science Model (3 assumptions)

Answer 18

The standard social science model is a
summary of current thoughts about human
nature, including the assumptions that
underlie most undergraduate curriculum
and reports in the popular press.

Assumes
1. human mind is a blank slate at birth and everything is learned
2. Biology is irrelevant or that the influences of biology are minor (and evo history)
3. There are not many specific learning mechanisms, but rather very few, very general learning mechanisms

Question 19

Shortcomings of associationism 3

Answer 19

Blank slate assumption
- Evidence that infants have a rich set of concepts and expectations about the world

Biology can’t be ignored
- All psychological processes have a relevant history - selection pressure can reveal function and design
- Relation back to increased fitness in the EEA- food or affection
- No explanation for why reinforcers are reinforcing without biology
Time out - biological explanation for being ostracized

3. A few general learning mechanisms can’t explain what children learn

Question 20

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

Answer 20

Consider the entire ecological system in which a child was developing - interaction btw the developing child and their contexts - bidirectional and reciprocal

Question 21

Microsystem

Answer 21

1- The individuals, groups and resources that the
child interacts with on the most frequent basis,
including family, school, peers and neighbors.

Physical resources in the immediate environment - bedroom, playground

Question 22

Mesosystem

Answer 22

2
The effects that emerge from interactions
between the entities in the microsystem. For
example, the child’s religion may impact the
way the family interacts with the school, or
the parents’ divorce may affect how the child
interacts with the community

Stronger and more numerous relationships lead to a richer and more stable environment for the developing child

Question 23

Exosystem

Answer 23

3 Institutional entities that affect indirectly
Parent teacher association - local government

Question 24

Macrosystem

Answer 24

4 One’s culture, including prevailing values,
beliefs and attitudes that may impact the
child’s development. Examples would
include attitudes towards gender equality
and sexual mores.

Question 25

Chronosystem

Answer 25

5 Changes over time that affect the
developing child, such as a death in the
family, a job-related move, or a change
in the government.

Question 26

Developmental Systems Theory

Answer 26

A perspective that emphasizes that when
it comes to complex systems, the whole
is more than the sum of its parts. This
perspective reminds us to consider all the
resources contributing to development,
genetic and environmental, rather than
emphasizing the contribution of one over
the other

Bidirectional influences - gene expression influences and is influenced ex. - things that happen to the adult phenotype can turn genes on and off - levels continue to impact each other
- Termite mound - when born - they don’t get genes but they also inherit the environment or mound that their parents created

Question 27

Shortcomings of the DST 2

Answer 27

1. Doesn’t explain how they interact - only that they do
   -We want to know what the interaction is
2. Insist that no component of the system can be credited with a special role in development or evolution - reject def of evolution because it implies a special role
   - Doesn’t acknowledge special role of genes in evolution
   Need genes to evolve and maintain complex traits

Question 28

Darwin on the ultimate cause of functional complexity
8 - FSLS VHAC

Answer 28

Natural species have a great enough “potential fertility” that they would increase exponentially, blanketing the planet with individuals, if unfettered. - keep reproducing fr ever

They don’t. Populations tend to remain more or less stable.

Natural resources, such as food, water and suitable shelter are limited. - this is why we do not blanket the planet

There is a struggle to acquire resources and survive. The winners of this competition are those best suited to solve the challenges of the current environment. - natural selection drives towards solutions in the current environment

There is variability in the population with respect to many traits, some relevant to survival and reproduction, some irrelevant. - giraffes that are taller can better reach the leaves

This variability is heritable: Offspring are like their parents.

Success in this struggle is not random: There is an advantage to those whose genetic inheritance from their parents is well suited to the current environment. This unequal success with respect to survival and reproduction due to genes is natural selection.

COMPLEXITY - Over many generations of natural selection, individuals become better and better suited to their environment, with adaptations that are more complex, efficient, effective, reliably developing, etc. - does not happen by one mutation or one generation - thousands of generations
Only evolution by natural selection can explain otherwise improbably complex traits

Question 29

Ethology - Lorenz, Eibesfeldt, Bowlby

Answer 29

The study of fitness enhancing behaviors that were shaped by natural selection

Lorenz - imprinting in birds - keeps the chicks close to their mother - newborns identify mother and preference for her - adaptive
Behavioral in functional terms - keeps baby safe and allows them to explore - mother as home base for explanation

Eibesfeldt - connections with human development - founder of human ethology
Attachment - attributed to ethology - humans form strong attachment to their mothers - sight, sound, smell and once attached another person is not an adequate substitute

Bowlby - brought up by a nanny but she left the family - separated from parents often - upper class
Attachment is evolved behavior with adaptive value - Kept infants safe in the EEA (coined term)
Parent and child are attached - functional terms - keeps kid close and safe - allows for safe exploration

Question 30

Sociobiology

Answer 30

Wilson - controversial - hierarchy or alliances
Insects - ok with biological explanation but humans did not like the biological explanation for human social behavior

Question 31

Modern Evolutionary Psychology

Answer 31

Differs from before because of emphasis on the EEA - recognize that the selection pressures of the EEA are the pressures that shaped our human psychology as well as our physiology and our bodies

To the extent that our modern environment is the same as the environment of our ancestors, our psychological adaptations work well. However, if there is a mismatch, our behaviors may not be adaptive.

Question 32

Shortcomings of EVO

Answer 32

Lack of understanding Epigenetics and effects - The study of modifications of gene expression due to chemical modifications of DNA that are reversible rather than heritable.

Evolutionary psychologists contend that selection works on the genome and the
genome maintains the complexity of adaptations across generations. Without the anti-entropic mechanisms
genome conveying this complexity across generations, infant organisms would eventually be unable to
develop any complex traits (

Question 33

What is a cross sectional design and what are the ad/dis?

Answer 33

A type of developmental study in which children of different ages are measured at the same time and compared in order to infer age-related change
Ex. Friendships between children of different ages - grade 12 have less friends - more reciprocity in who is friends - friends also named them as friends

Advantages
- All measures are collected at once - study can be completed quickly
- Each subject measured once - no risk of attrition or practice effects

Disadvantages
- Between subjects does not actually measure the development of an individual - infer development
- Inadvertently finding cohort effects - if a new teaching method is introduced differences might be exaggerated or mitigated
Covid could impact learning - something that happened that makes the two groups different from eachother that is not just age

Question 34

Longitudinal Design - ad and dis

Answer 34

A group of children are studied first at one age and later at another age or many ages in order to observe age related changes - within subjects - can span months or years - same kids - dont have to worry about if changes can be attributed to sex, race, religion
EX. 7up tv show - follows the same cohort and takes measures at different times

Advantage
- Directly measures the effect of the passage of time, eliminating possible cohort effects and allowing the researcher to measure both general trends and individual differences in development

Disadvantage:
- Time it takes - have to wait years for development
- Selective attrition - subjects might quit or move away are different in some way that is relevant to the object of the study
- Families who quit the study may not value autism research
- Attrition - randomly lose people
Practice effects - performing differently over time as a result of prior exposure to the test or testing situation
Can only administer the same IQ test once

Question 35

What is a cross sequential design - ad and dis?

Answer 35

A type of developmental study in which different-aged groups of children are studied at the same time, once initially and then later after a planned duration, in order to observe age-related changes.
4 & 8 year olds - study 4 yrs later to compare the performance of cohort 1 as 8yr olds

Advantages:
- Study the passage of time and individual differences
- Buffers against the effects of selective attrition
- Determine whether differences are driven by cohort or practice effects - could correct for them
- Measure of practice effects so you can account for them

Disadvantages
time consuming and expensive

Question 36

Naturalistic Observation +/-

Answer 36

Naturalistic observation - data is collected in everyday settings
ex. Peer interactions in a day care or language development - find kids in their natural environment

Advantages - high external validity > generalizability
Lab environment - inferring external validity

Disadvantages - little experimenter control, does not allow for causations regarding causation since it lacks random assignment (A procedure that ensures that each participant in a study has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in the experiment.)

Question 37

What is a correlational design?

Answer 37

Correlational design - A research design in which the researcher will observe the relationship between two variables in a group of subjects without manipulating either variable. - tv and aggressive behavior - measure both but not manipulate either - no causation
Cannot make causal inference

Advantages - expense, ethical considerations

Disadvantages - correlation - cannot infer causal relationship

Question 38

What is an experimental design?

Answer 38

• strongest design with respect to drawing causal conclusions
• A research design in which the researcher carefully controls one or more variables and observes the effect on another variable. - - –Subjects are randomly assigned to conditions.

Independent Variable In an experiment, the variable that is systematically manipulated to test its relationship to the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable In an experiment, the variable that is expected to be affected by, or dependent on, the experimental manipulation.

Question 39

What is a within vs. a between-subject design?

Answer 39

Within-Subjects Design - An experimental design in which participants are exposed to multiple experimental treatments, and measures taken from the same individuals are compared.

Between-Subjects Design - An experimental design in which each participant is included in only one group, and variables of interest are compared across groups - random assignment - ensure that the groups are matched on demographic factors such as ethnicity, IQ, sex, and socio-economic status.

Question 40

4 techniques for developmental research

Answer 40

1. Preferential-looking paradigm
   An experimental design in which an infant is presented with two visual stimuli at the same time. If the looking time differs reliably between the two, the experimenter infers that the infant can discriminate between the two stimuli.
   Display stimuli on computer, counterbalance order control for brightness, timing etc, eye-tracking
   Developed and refined by Davida Teller - board with two stimuli - watch the baby to see if they are looking to one side or the other more
2. Habituation Paradigm
   An experimental design that takes advantage of an infant’s habituation to a repeatedly presented stimulus. If a new stimulus elicits a recovery in response, the experimenter infers that the infant can discriminate between the old and the new stimulus.
   Keep going until the looking time cuts in half- Decrease in looking time- no longer novel - new stimulus and see if it is the same or different in. More looking time/ staying at half interesting level
   Notice that this technique can be used to falsify the hypothesis that the baby cannot discriminate between two things, but it cannot be used to falsify the hypothesis that the baby can discriminate between them.
3. The Violation of Expectation Paradigm
   An experimental procedure in which an infant is expected to look longer at an event that violates a belief or expectation that the infant holds
4. Non-visual Psychophysical techniques
   Involuntary changes in the autonomic nervous system can be responses to stimuli - measure heart rate, pupil dilation and skin conductance, sucking time - hearing something that’s interesting - sucking faster

Question 41

Qualitative research and types

Answer 41

Research that yields data that are difficult to quantify, such as testimonies, observations or reports.
Explore areas that are difficult to quantify or new areas - doesn’t know what to measure

1. Interview research
   verbally asks a participant a series of questions and records the responses either in writing or via audio or audiovisual recording.
   the standardized script, asking the same questions to each participant, or use a semi-structured interview format that might begin with uniform questions but then pursues topics that the participant brings up. - piaget
2. Observational research
   can be quantitative (as when the researcher counts the number of times boys and girls are called on in class), but it can also be qualitative. For example, a researcher might observe children interacting in a classroom or on a playground

Question 42

Cross species comparisons - 3 reasons for importance to devpsych

Answer 42

1. Cross-species comparisons might lift the veil of instinct blindness and shed light on cognitive skills that each species specializes in.
   Dead reckoning in ants - once they find their way to the food they can go straight back to the nest - sheds light on the fact that they are adapted to solve the problems of their environment
2. Cross-species considerations shed light on the match between adaptive problems that various species had to face in the environment in which they evolved and the psychological solutions that resulted
3. Social Brain Hypothesis - The idea that the large brains of humans, as well as the general intelligence of humans, has evolved in response to social conflicts and challenges that are an inherent part of group living
   The larger the group size, the more of the brain was neocortex

Question 43

Cross Cultural Approach

Answer 43

Compare measures from different cultures to reveal the effects of context on development
Stability of development - categories of colours and facial expression are the same in every human context

Comparing Aboriginal lifestyle children with american children - He concludes that children have biological preparedness, with respect to the development of biological knowledge

Question 44

What is reliability and what are the types?

Answer 44

Reliability is the extent to which research results are repeatable. The consistency in repeated measures of the same variable using the same measurement method.

inter-rater reliability: the same observations rated by different people should yield the same results.

Can also be measured across separate administrations of a test, a measure called test–retest reliability

Question 45

Validity and types

Answer 45

The extent to which a measuring technique measures the attribute that it is designed to measure
If you do not have reliability you do not have validity (since without reliability, you are not measuring anything in particular)

Internal validity is the extent to which internal conditions of the study allow for a measure of the intended phenomenon
- Fail by inadequate recruiting and screening, devising the test improperly or creating biasing distractions in the test setting
- To achieve this the experimenter has to minimize any bias which would lead to results leaning artificially in one direction or the other.

External validity refers to the extent to which the research measures generalize the intended factor outside of a research situation

Question 46

What are the main ethical considerations involved in research?

Answer 46

The first is the principle of “non-harmful procedures,” meaning the investigator should use the least stressful research procedure possible.

CONSENT - The right to informed consent means that the researcher must explain, in child-appropriate language, what the participant will experience - guardian must also consent

DECEPTION - if necessary in order to conduct the research, and the institutional review board agrees, then deception can be used. Still, the participant should be debriefed at the end of the study, - participant feels all right about their experience before they leave.

protect the child’s IDENTITY when discussing or reporting results from the research. Anonymity and confidentiality

right to knowledge of results, which means that if the child wants, the researcher will provide results of the study in language that is meaningful to the child.

Question 47

What was Darwins problem?

Answer 47

Inherited material would blend together from mother and father - traits would average
Did not align with natural selection

A novel mutation that had beneficial effects could never take hold and spread - blending also meant the mutation would disappear
- New mutation leads to a tree that is much taller - would blend with shorter and next would be medium - advantage gets muted and blended out
- His explanation for complex functionality would not work if inheritance was blended - Darwin did not find the solution in his lifetime

Question 48

What did mendel find and what was his new theory?

Answer 48

All should be intermediate height if blending was correct but first gen was all tall and short showed up in the second generation in ¼ (short is recessive)

New theory - The information was contained in coherent bits that retained their character, even in generations in which they were not expressed in the physical features of the plant.

1-Whatever was inherited was particulate, not fluid.
2-Each individual carried two copies of each of these particulate units of inheritance. (Today we could call them genes, but this term was not available to Mendel.)
3-Each parent gives one copy of the heritable particle to its offspring.
4-The heritable particle (gene) given by one parent does not change the nature of the one inherited by the other parent (each gene can be passed on intact), but it can influence the expression of the gene in a particular individual. This was Mendel’s idea of dominant and recessive genes.

Question 49

What is modern synthesis?

Answer 49

The modern understanding that the gene, Mendel’s particulate mechanism of inheritance, was the heritable matter that changed over time in Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Question 50

allele

Answer 50

One possible form of a gene that may occupy a particular locus (location) on the chromosome.

Question 51

Chromosome

Answer 51

A single molecule comprising a very large
DNA helix. A single chromosome may
include thousands of genes

Question 52

Gene

Answer 52

Any portion of chromosomal material that potentially lasts for enough generations to serve as a unit of natural selection - Richard Dawkins

A functional sequence of DNA that remains across a large number of generations, potentially for long enough for it to function as a significant unit of natural selection.
Gene is defined by what it does
If a particular allele has not become universal, then there has not been a strong enough selection pressure throughout the species with respect to the alternative alleles.

Question 53

Gene

Answer 53

Any portion of chromosomal material that potentially lasts for enough generations to serve as a unit of natural selection - Richard Dawkins

A functional sequence of DNA that remains across a large number of generations, potentially for long enough for it to function as a significant unit of natural selection.

Gene is defined by what it does
If a particular allele has not become universal, then there has not been a strong enough selection pressure throughout the species with respect to the alternative alleles.

Question 54

What are the functions of DNA

Answer 54

(a) it can replicate itself, and
In order for a DNA molecule to replicate, the molecule “unzips” down the middle and creates copies of itself that are made up of the same sequence of bases. All it needs for raw materials is a supply of free bases of various sorts
Stores information and reproduces - strands splits apart and pairs up with new nucleotides

(b) it can be transcribed in a process that results in a protein
Genes encode the base sequence that makes the formation of proteins possible,
Protein A sequence of amino acid (22) that combines and folds in specific shapes in order to accomplish specific functions.

Question 55

What steps to make a protein

Answer 55

1. the DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA), which means The DNA molecule has to unzip so that the template strand is exposed.
   Messenger RNA A molecule that serves as an intermediate step when DNA is transcribed to make a protein. The sequence of the messenger RNA is read from the DNA molecule, and the messenger RNA is then translated into a protein.

2- mRNA molecule is then created when nucleotides pair up with the template strand and create the mRNA molecule
Protein’s shape determines its function

Question 56

How does protein replication differ from DNA replication

Answer 56

A - Mrna is always single-stranded and not a double helix
B- the messenger RNA is translated into a protein. The mRNA molecule is “read” like a ribbon, three nucleotides at a time, and that triplet is called a codon. This formula yields a 64-letter alphabet since four bases can make 64 different three-base combinations. The codon specifies which amino acid is to be attached next to the growing protein. One by one, the amino acids are attached until the protein is complete
C - transcription produces a single strand of messenger RNA, which creates a single strand of prote

Question 57

How is the function of a protein determined?

Answer 57

The shape of the resulting protein, and hence its function, can be affected by environmental factors within the cell when it is produced, including the local pH (a measure of acidity) and temperature - determine the shape and therefore the function of the protein

Question 58

How do you get changes in gene frequency across generations?

Answer 58

Mutations - spontaneous failure to create a true replica - resulting in a new sequence

The only CREATIVE process in evolution by natural selection

Mutation leads to changes in gene frequency
Mutations in somatic cell - does not get passed on, no consequence
Mutation in a sex cell - potential to be exposed to natural selection

Question 59

genetic drift

Answer 59

The change in gene frequency results from the fact that genes passed from parent to offspring are selected randomly, not evenly.

Brown eyes and blue randomly passed on not even - large effect in small pops
Ex. by chance ending up with all tall alleles

Question 60

founder effect

Answer 60

A special case of genetic drift in a small “founder” population, resulting in a particular allele getting a foothold in the gene pool

small number of individuals colonize a region with no other inflow into the population’s gene pool - genetically isolated and by chance have a higher representation of a particular gene

Question 61

bottleneck situation

Answer 61

which the population is drastically reduced for at least one generation such that genetic diversity is lost

Question 62

epigenetics

Answer 62

The study of the regulation of gene expression due to chemical modifications of DNA that are reversible across generations.
the same allele can be expressed differently in different individuals due to a chemical marker that it carries.

a primary mechanism by which environmental factors affect gene expression, and it is hypothesized that environmental signals available early in development alter epigenetic markers across the genome, and thus influence brain development and ultimately behavior

Question 63

Methylation

Answer 63

A methyl group forms a weak bond with the DNA molecule - less likely to be expressed - can and will be removed before passed on - impacts probability that the gene will be expressed in the lifetime
Mother rats active in nurturing behavior, others less, - behaviors passed on epigenetically - led to temporary revisible changes in specific genes

Licked more - more relaxed, not more anxious
One study reported less methylation genome-wide among those whose families held blue-collar or manual jobs positive relationship between years of education and genome-wide methylation

Genomic Imprinting - The reversible chemical tagging of an allele that alters the likelihood that it will be expressed in the phenotype. - post it analogy

Question 64

2- Histone Modification

Answer 64

The tightening (or loosening) of the histone coil around which DNA is wound, resulting in a decreased (or increased) probability that the DNA will be transcribed.

Can squeeze the DNA tightly making it impossible for it to be transcribed or it can relax the coil of DNA
Nutrients can get to it so it can be transcribed

Question 65

3 - Lyonization

Answer 65

Occurs in female mammals - few dozen cells
2 x chromosomes but both do not need to be expressed for normal development to occur.
2X - redundancy - one of the 2 balls up tight so that DNA is unexpressed
Other x chromosome manages the cell
Lyonization (squishing) happens in one cell and becomes a patch of tissues - happens all throughout the body

In people skin colour is not determined by the x chromosome - in cats it is which is why it causes the patches on their skin
Lyonization is the process by which one of the two X chromosomes becomes inactive by becoming so tightly packed that it cannot be transcribed. The selection of which of the 2 X chromosomes is silenced happens early in fetal development.