Week 2

Question 1

Cloninger described two types of alcoholics. What are those types?

Answer 1

Type 1 was characterized by a relatively late onset, loss of control over drinking, experiencing guilt because of one’s drinking, and high scores on the personality trait of harm avoidance (a trait associated with anxiety and pessimism). Type 2, on the other hand, was characterized by an early age of onset, displaying antisocial tendencies and behaviors, and high scores on novelty seeking (a trait related to impulsivity).

Question 2

Castellanos-Ryan and Conrod describe two domains in which personality can have an influence on addiction. What are those two domains?

Answer 2

The inhibited and disinhibited domain

Question 3

Within the inhibited domain, the personality dimensions that have been most consistently associated with addictive behaviors are…

Answer 3

(1) negative emotionality, introversion, or hopelessness; and (2) neuroticism, trait anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity.

Question 4

Within the disinhibited personality domain, the two dimensions that have been most consistently implicated are…

Answer 4

(1) impulsivity, sometimes generally referred to as disinhibition; and (2) extraversion, including sociability and sensation seeking.

Question 5

The available evidence suggests at least four different developmental or causal pathways to addiction, in which the different personality factors play an important etiological role. Which pathway follows ‘‘hopelessness’’?

Answer 5

the negative affect regulation pathway (late onset)

Question 6

Which developmental pathway follows ‘‘anxiety sensitivity’’?

Answer 6

the stress-dampening pathway (late onset)

Question 7

Which developmental pathway follows ‘‘impulsivity’’?

Answer 7

the poor behavioral inhibition and/or deviance proneness pathway (early onset/continued use)

Question 8

Which developmental pathway follows ‘‘sensation seeking’’?

Answer 8

the reward sensitivity pathway (early onset/experimental use)

Question 9

Meeus et al. looked for evidence of the Dual Systems Model and the Maturational Imbalance Model. What were their conclusions?

Answer 9

The data didn’t fit either of the models. The Sensation seeking to balanced sensation seeking group always scored higher on sensation seeking than impulse control, and they showed more risky behaviors than the other groups.

Question 10

Kreek et al. stated the following: ‘‘We suggest that impulsivity and risk taking contribute most to … and …. We expect that these personality factors contribute less to … after substantial changes to the brain, effected by chronic exposure to the drug of abuse.’’

Answer 10

the initiation of drug use, the progression to regular drug use, addiction and relapse

Question 11

What does the law of effect state?

Answer 11

(Risky) behavior will be repeated when the consequence is beneficial.

Question 12

What is a ‘‘positive punishment’’?

Answer 12

Adding something ‘‘bad’’

Question 13

What is a ‘‘negative reward’’?

Answer 13

Removing something ‘‘good’’

Question 14

What types of individual vulnerability are suggested in the third lecture?

Answer 14

1. Genetic vulnerability
2. Personality as vulnerability
3. Psychosocial and psychiatric disorders as vulnerability
4. Negative life events as vulnerability

Question 15

Addiction if often multiconditional: what does this mean?

Answer 15

That addiction is often caused by a combination of vulnerabilities

Question 16

The environment can trigger a genotype. Which model describes this process?

Answer 16

The diathesis-stress model

Question 17

Considering smoking, which is influenced more by genes than by the environment? Initiation, amount of cigarettes, nicotine-dependence.

Answer 17

Nicotine-dependence (75%-25%).

Question 18

Research on identity shows: age 11 … is more alcohol use at age 16, largest effect for adolescents who are high in ….

Answer 18

poor control, reward sensitivity

Question 19

Which disorders can be seen as a vulnerability for addiction?

Answer 19

Psycosocial and psychiatric disorders as vulnerability contains externalising problems (ADHD, antisocial behavior disorder (b.v. conduct disorder)) and internalising problems (mood disorder (bv. depression > coping), anxiety and panic disorder (bv. Social anxiety > withdrawn), posttraumatic stress syndroom (PTSS)).

Question 20

While many addictions have gotten less prevalent, gaming addiction has increased. Problems with … as well as … are a risk factor for increase in Internet Gaming Disorder symptoms among young adolescents.

Answer 20

attention, social vulnerability

Question 21

What has been suggested concerning negative life events as vulnerability for addiction?

Answer 21

Contains self medication hypothesis, diathesis-stress model/differential susceptibility, and changes in the brain.

Question 22

Considering selection in peer groups, what do we mean with selection?

Answer 22

Selection refers to the process where adolescents cluster with peers based on pre-existing similarities in behaviors, attitudes, or values.

Question 23

What do we mean with peer influence?

Answer 23

influence occurs when adolescents adjust their behaviors, attitudes, or values to those of their peers.

Question 24

Why is peer contagion different from peer influence?

Answer 24

Peer contagion however should not be equated with peer influence. It rather is a specific form of influence involving four essential elements: (1) a one-way transmission of an attribute, from persons who have it to persons who do not, (2) persons do not lose the attribute, (3) nor receive anything from others in return, and (4) there is no transmission of the absence of the attribute.

Question 25

Experimental studies suggests that both … and … play a role in the formation of friendships. Similarity in social networks also may occur as a function of an unwanted, more passive process: ….

Answer 25

preference for similarity, repulsion from dissimilarity, default selection

Question 26

Experiments have indicated that adolescents are more likely to be influenced by their peers … than …

Answer 26

passively (imitation, and conformity to popularity norms), actively (peer pressure)

Question 27

These peer norms can be … norms, referring to the typical behavior in a group, … norms, referring to the approval of behavior in a group, and … norms, referring to the extent to which certain behaviors are associated with popularity in a group.

Answer 27

descriptive, injunctive, popularity

Question 28

Prinstein and Giletta suggest five ways of improving research on peer influence. What are these?

Answer 28

(1) extending the examination of peer influence to multiple potential sources of socialization, beyond close friends; (2) examining peer influence effects over shorter time frames, and in real time; (3) testing indirect forms of peer influence; (4) extending the conceptualization and measurement of peer influence susceptibility; (5) examining positive and adaptive forms of peer influence.

Question 29

In the fourth lecture three common assumptions are discussed. What are they, and have they been proven?

Answer 29

• Similarity in risk behavior is due to peer influence (bad friends, bad influence) = TRUE
• Peer influence is often taking place because peers pressure each other to act in a certain way = FALSE
• Peer influence is one of the most important predictors of adolescent behavior = UNKNOWN

Question 30

Which four theories about (peer) influence have been discussed?

Answer 30

1. Evolutionary theories (humans are preprogrammed and it was positive during evolution, similar behavior was important)
2. Drastic neurological changes in social brain in adolescence: importance of status and affection
3. Socio-structural changes make ‘’fitting in’’ adaptive because it enhances compatibility (influence-compatibility model)
4. Theory specific for risk behavior: the ‘maturity gap’, the dual taxonomy model. (Two types: life-course persistent antisocial role models and adolescent-limited).

Question 31

What is peer pressure?

Answer 31

Peer pressure = “the explicit verbal encouragement/offering of a substance (e.g., alcohol), accompanied by coercion, teasing, or insulting if the person does not accept the offer”

Question 32

What are the different types of peer influence discussed in the fourth lecture?

Answer 32

Peer pressure, Imitation, Norms, Mutual reinforcement.

Question 33

What is imitation?

Answer 33

Imitation: “observing and imitating the behavior of others” conscious; because of anticipated reward or sanction, or unconscious.

Question 34

What is Tajfel’s social identity theory?

Answer 34

Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986): Group belonging and sense of self, modelling behavior of the group indirectly contributes to a favorable self-identity, via acceptance (=intrinsic rewards).

Question 35

Influence of friends on adolescent’ risk attitudes was strongest in classrooms where risk attitudes were (strongly) associated with …. Popular peers set the norm for friendship selection and influence related to aggression.

Answer 35

popularity

Question 36

Influence is most likely to be bi-directional. What does this mean?

Answer 36

People are not passive ’reactors’ to their environment.

Question 37

Teens that are engaging in … show more deviant behavior later.

Answer 37

deviancy training

Question 38

What is the susceptibility hypothesis?

Answer 38

Maybe individuals differ in peer influence susceptibility as a construct in its own right?

Question 39

Which individual characteristics are suggested in lecture 4 to make youngsters more susceptible to peer pressure?

Answer 39

Personality (low in conscientiousness) and possibly low self-control.

Question 40

Which parent characteristics are suggested in lecture 4 to make youngsters more susceptible to peer pressure?

Answer 40

overprotective parenting, coercive interaction style

Question 41

Which contextual factors are suggested in lecture 4 to make youngsters more susceptible to peer pressure?

Answer 41

unstructured settings (–Presence of peers,
Absence of adults, Unstructured activities)

Question 42

Which interventions are suggested in lecture 4?

Answer 42

American Stop Smoking Intervention Study (ASSIST), Identify peers who are influential, Appoint influential peers as peer supporters, Train peers, supply them with information about smoking-related risks and how to help others quit.