lesson 7 memory

Question 1

Memory

Answer 1

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

Question 1

encoding

Answer 1

the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

Question 2

storage

Answer 2

the process of maintaining information in memory over time;

Question 2

retrieval

Answer 2

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Question 3

how do we make memories

Answer 3

combining information we already have in our brains with new information that comes in through
our senses. In this way, memory is like cooking; starting from a recipe but improvising along the way, we add old information to new information, mix, shake, and bake, and out pops a memory. Memories are constructed, not recorded, and encoding is the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring
memory

Question 4

Semantic encoding

Answer 4

is the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

Question 5

how the lobes work with memory

Answer 5

Question 6

visual imagery encoding

Answer 6

the process of storing new information by converting
it into mental pictures

• For example, a visual image of a parked car might help you create a link to your memory of
  your first kiss

Question 7

organizational encoding

Answer 7

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series
of items

*For example, suppose you had to memorize the words peach, cow, chair, apple, table, cherry, lion, couch, horse, desk. The task seems difficult, but if you organize the items into three categories—fruit (peach, apple, cherry),
animals (cow, lion, horse), and furniture (chair, table, couch, desk)—the task becomes much easier

Question 7

which kind of encoding tends to lead to faster and better recall

Answer 7

survival encoding- One advantage of encoding survival-related information is that it draws on elements of semantic, visual imagery, and organizational encoding, which together produce high levels of subsequent
memory. Also, survival encoding encourages participants to think in detail about the goals they want to achieve and thus engage in extensive planning, which in turn benefits memory and may account for much of the benefit
of survival encoding

Question 8

Sensory memory

Answer 8

is a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

Question 8

Iconic memory

Answer 8

fast-decaying store of visual information

Question 9

Echoic memory

Answer 9

fast-decaying store of auditory information

Question 10

short-term memory

Answer 10

holds nonsensory information for more than a
few seconds but less than a minute

Question 11

Rehearsal

Answer 11

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

Question 12

serial position effect

Answer 12

refers to the observation that the first few and last
few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle

Question 13

Enhanced recall of the first few
items in, say, a list of words is called the

Answer 13

primacy effect. It occurs because these items receive more rehearsals
than subsequent items in the middle of the list and thus are more likely to be encoded into long-term storage

Question 13

Enhanced recall of the last few items is called the

Answer 13

recency effect and can result from rehearsing items that are still
in short-term storage

Question 14

combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short term memory

Answer 14

Chunking

Question 15

working memory

Answer 15

refers to active maintenance of information in short-term
storage

Question 16

long-term memory

Answer 16

a type of storage that holds information for
hours, days, weeks, or years

Question 17

In 1953, a 27-year-old man, known then by the initials HM,
suffered from intractable epilepsy

what happened?

Answer 17

HM’s doctors removed parts of his temporal lobes, including the hippocampus and some surrounding regions. After the operation, HM could converse easily, use and understand language, and perform well
on intelligence tests, but he could not remember anything that happened to him after the operation

*The fact that HM had much worse anterograde than retrograde amnesia suggests that the hippocampal region is not the site of long term memory

Question 18

anterograde amnesia

Answer 18

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

Question 19

retrograde amnesia

Answer 19

the inability to retrieve
information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

Question 20

consolidation

Answer 20

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

*For example, when someone experiences a head injury in a car crash and later cannot recall what happened during the few seconds or minutes before the crash—but can recall other events normally—the head injury probably prevented consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory. Another type of consolidation occurs over much longer periods of time—days, weeks, months, and years—and likely involves transfer of
information from the hippocampus to more permanent storage sites in the cortex

Question 21

how do memories become encoded as long term

Answer 21

sleep

Question 22

seemingly consolidated memories
can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again. This
process is called

Answer 22

reconsolidation

Question 23

long-term potentiation (more commonly known as LTP)

Answer 23

a process whereby communication
across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

Question 24

a retrieval cue

Answer 24

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

*These results suggest that information is sometimes available in memory even
when it is momentarily inaccessible and that retrieval cues help us bring
inaccessible information to mind.

Question 25

context dependence

Answer 25

a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

*For example, in one study divers learned some words on land and some other words underwater; they recalled the words best when they were tested in the same dry or wet environment in which they had initially learned them, because the environment itself was a retrieval cue

Question 26

State-dependent retrieval

Answer 26

process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval (drunk vs sober)

Question 27

transfer-appropriate processing

Answer 27

the idea that memory is
likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

Question 28

Retrieval-induced forgetting

Answer 28

a process by
which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

Question 29

Explicit memory

Answer 29

when people consciously or intentionally
retrieve past experiences. Recalling last summer’s vacation, incidents from a novel you just read, or facts you studied for a test all involve explicit memory. Indeed, anytime you start a sentence with “I remember …,” you are
talking about an explicit memory

Question 29

Implicit memory

Answer 29

occurs when past experiences influence later behavior and
performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

Question 30

procedural memory

Answer 30

the gradual acquisition of skills
as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things

Question 31

priming

Answer 31

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task

Question 32

Semantic memory

Answer 32

is a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Question 33

Episodic memory

Answer 33

is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Question 34

a lapse in attention that results in memory failure

Answer 34

absentmindedness

Question 35

transience

Answer 35

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time (not really paying attention so hippocampus never really logged it)

*different from forgetting where the memory was actually encoded- once there and is now gone

Question 36

a failure to retrieve information that is available in
memory even though you are trying to produce it

Answer 36

blocking

Question 37

memory misattribution

Answer 37

assigning a recollection or an idea
to the wrong source

Question 38

source memory

Answer 38

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

Question 39

false recognition

Answer 39

a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before

Question 40

Suggestibility

Answer 40

is the tendency to incorporate misleading information
from external sources into personal recollections.

Question 41

bias

Answer 41

the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings
on recollection of previous experiences

Question 42

types of bias

Answer 42

Whereas consistency bias exaggerates the similarity between past and present, change bias is the tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or
believe now and what we felt or believed in the past

*A special case of change bias is egocentric bias, the tendency to exaggerate the change between present and past in order to make ourselves look good in
retrospect

Question 43

persistence:

Answer 43

the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget. Melinda’s experience is far from unique; some events are so emotionally charged— such as the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center —that we form unusually detailed memories of when and where we heard about them. These flashbulb memories generally persist much longer than memories for more ordinary events. frequently occurs after disturbing or traumatic incidents, such as the fire that destroyed her home. Although being able to recall memories quickly is usually considered a good thing, in the case of persistence, that ability mutates into an unwelcome burden

Question 43

loftus

Answer 43

Misinformation has the potential for invading our memories when we talk to other people, when we are suggestively interrogated or when we read or view media coverage about some event that we may have experienced ourselves. After more than two decades of exploring the power of misinformation, researchers have learned a great deal about the conditions that make people susceptible to memory modification. Memories are more easily modified, for instance, when the passage of time allows the original memory to fade

*how susceptible memory is to getting distorted and false memories form (Corroboration of an event by another person can be a powerful technique for instilling a false memory. In fact, merely claiming to have seen a person do something can lead that person to make a false confession of wrongdoing.

*can even plant a memory and make someone say they remember it happening… False memories are constructed by combining actual memories with the content of suggestions received from others. During the process, individuals may forget the source of the information. This is a classic example of source confusion, in which the content and the
source become dissociated

Question 44

dunlonsky

Answer 44

how to study:
1. SELF-TESTING Quizzing Yourself Gets High Marks

2. DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
   For Best Results, Spread Your Study over Time
3. ELABORATIVE INTERROGATION Channel Your Inner Four-Year-Old
4. SELF-EXPLANATION
   How Do I Know?
5. INTERLEAVED PRACTICE
   Mixing Apples and Oranges

dont work: highlighting, rereading

Question 45

misinformation effect

Answer 45

These studies show that
when people who witness an event are later exposed to new and misleading information about it, their recollections
often become distorted

Question 46

why are skinner and watson wrong

Answer 46

there’s learning that’s involved with more than just radical behaviorism (reward) like exploring a maze and learning where to turn or memory

Such as how we’re primed for language and it just depends on which language we’re exposed to

Question 47

memory

Answer 47

system able to encode information around us even if we dont know it’s important

Question 48

procedural memory

Answer 48

signing name, typing, riding a bike- things we’ve learned that a muscle memory (doesnt need hippocampus)

Question 49

semantic memory

Answer 49

random facts/trivia that make up our general knowledge- states, multiplication, color of the sky

Question 50

event

Answer 50

a specific occurrence in time which includes sensory environment as well as internal thoughts and feelings

Question 51

convergence zone where disparate information is bound together

Answer 51

hippocampus in temporal lobe

Question 52

reinstantiate

Answer 52

a set amount of neurons and a certain amount of them in hippocampus light up for a certain memory (like the fans holding up cards to make a word)

*so to retrieve a memory, hippocampus needs to go back to the state it was in when memory was created (reinstantiate)

Question 53

levels of processing

case

rhyme

sentence

Answer 53

lower or uppercase (bad memory)

does it rhyme (meh memory)

was it in a sentence with meaning (good memory)

Question 54

deep encoding

Answer 54

leads to a higher distributed representation (fatter representation with more neurons, can have more retrieval cues)

Question 55

how was hm able to remember past without hippocampus reinstantiating

Answer 55

hippocampus backs up to other parts of the brain through sleep, so he was able to remember things it had time to back up

Question 56

memory errors

Answer 56

1) transience
2) forgetting/absentmindedness
3) bias
4) misattribution

Question 57

bias

Answer 57

brain filling in information that wasnt really there due to expectations

Question 58

memory distortion due to source attribution

Answer 58

hippocampus cant always tell where memory is from (source) so not sure if memory is real or not

Question 59

donald thompson

Answer 59

memory researcher accused of rape- didnt do it, was on live tv talking about memory distortion. she misattributed the identity of her attacker with another piece of information in her memory (tv)

*hippocampus can be tricked when it doesn’t know where the memory came from

Question 60

can we multi task

Answer 60

not really memory but modularity
*each module has a severe bottleneck and can only do one thing at a time (so very difficult to do multiple things at once well)