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Biology > Animal Response > Flashcards

Animal Response Flashcards

1
Q

What is the CNS

A

brain and spinal cord
areas of grey and white matter
due to presence of myelin
myelin colours the fibres white

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2
Q

What is the PNS

A

motor and sensory neurone
carry action potential from sensory to motor
neurones bundled together and covered in connective tissue
= sheath
makes nerves

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3
Q

What does the PNS split into

A

sensory neurones
motor neurone system

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4
Q

Function of sensory neurone
(position of cell body)

A

carry action potential from receptor to CNS
cell body to side

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5
Q

Function of motor neurone system

A

conducts action potentials from CNS to effectors

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6
Q

What is the Motor Neurone System subdivided into

A

Somatic and autonomic nervous system

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7
Q

Function of Somatic NS

A

action potential from CNS to effectors
which are under voluntary control
e.g. skeletal muscles
most somatic neurones = myelinated
= rapid response time
somatic to effector connections = one neurone

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8
Q

Function of Autonomic NS

A

“self governing”
carry action potential - CNS to organs/ glands
most = non-myelinated
2 neurons joined at ganglion

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9
Q

What is the Autonomic NS subdivided into

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

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10
Q

Function of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

A

Sympathetic
prepares body for activity - mostly times of stress
effects = inc heart + ventilation rates, pupil dilated + orgasm
Parasympathetic
conserves energy - most active at times of rest
effects = dec heart + ventilation rate, pupil constricted + sexual arousal

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11
Q

Neurones leave the CNS via vagus + pelvic nerve in…

A

PS

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12
Q

Neurones leave the CNS via the spinal cord in…

A

SS

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13
Q

Presence of ganglion in…

A

PS + SS

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14
Q

Ganglion occurs within target tissue in…

A

PS

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15
Q

Ganglion occurs just outside spinal cord in…

A

SS

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16
Q

Long pre-ganglionic neurone in…
Short pre-ganglionic neurone in…

A

PS
SS

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17
Q

Name of neurotransmitter released by pre-ganglionic neurone at ganglion in PS + SS

A

acetylcholine

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18
Q

Name of neurotransmitter released at post-ganglionic neurone in PS + SS

A

acetylcholine
noradrenaline

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19
Q

Effect of Sympathetic + Parasympathetic system

A

Sympathetic
inc heart rate + force contraction
pupil dilation - ciliary muscles relax
digestion inhibited - sphincter muscle contraction, release glucose into blood, arterioles contract = blood sent elsewhere
inc ventilation rate
inc sweating, erector muscle contraction, vasoconstriction
Parasympathetic
dec heart rate
pupil constriction - ciliary muscles constrict
digestion activated - sphincter muscles relax, small inc in glycogen prod, inc secretion of gastric juices
dec ventilation rate
no effect on skin

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20
Q

Function of cerebellum

A

co-ordinate movement, pressure + balance
interprets sensory inputs from muscles + tendons
fine motor muscle co-ordination

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21
Q

What is the cerebral cortex

A

outer layer of cerebrum
divided into 2 hemispheres
3 areas = sensory, dissociation, motor

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22
Q

Function of corpus callosum

A

major tract of neurones
connect the 2 hemispheres

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23
Q

Function of cerebrum

A

control higher brain function
conscious thoughts, emotion, over-riding reflexes, intelligence, reasoning, judgement + co-ordination of voluntary actions

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24
Q

Function of hypothalamus

A

control autonomic NS + endocrine glands
thus controls homeostatic mechanisms
e.g. thermoregulation, osmoregulation, secretion of hormones

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25
Q

Function of pituitary gland

A

involved in release of hormones
2 lobes = posterior + anterior
posterior = release of hormones made by hypothalamus
anterior = release of its own hormones into

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26
Q

Function of medulla oblongata

A

co-ordinates + controls involuntary movements
by controlling non skeletal muscles
breathing rate, circulation, blood pressure + peristalsis in alimentary canal walls

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27
Q

Function of pons

A

involuntary actions
e.g control of breathing, communication between different parts of brain + sensations such as taste + hearing, balance

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28
Q

Function of optical centre in cerebral cortex

A

involved in optical reflex

29
Q

Blinking reflex
type of reflex
function
effect on eye
part of brain involved
stimulus needed to initiate reflex (4)

A

cranial
protect eye from damage
closure of eyelids
nervous pathway?
corneal reflex = foreign object touching one eye
optical reflex = sudden bright light
loud sounds
sudden movements close to eye

30
Q

Corneal reflex
function
position of receptor
route taken by sensory
position of relay
route taken by motor
why does action potential travel to sensory region of cerebral cortex

A

blinking of both eyes when foreign body touches cornea of eye
?
pons?
connected to sensory which is connected to synapse
passes action potential out brain to facial muscles = eyelid blink
to inform higher region of brain (cerebral cortex) that stimulus has occurred

31
Q

Optical reflex
function
position of receptor
?

A

blinking of both eyes when too much light enters one/ both eyes
?
?

32
Q

Knee jerk reflex
type
function
position of receptors
route taken by sensory

A

spinal
balance - if falling backwards, quad muscles contract, pulls you back to upright stance
?
?

33
Q

Fight or flight responses (12)

A

racing thoughts
pupil dilation
dry mouth
inc hear rate
nausea
vasoconstriction
muscles tense
dizzy
inc breathing rate
adrenal glands release adrenaline
bladder urgency
palms sweaty

34
Q

What is a reflex action

A

involuntary response to a stimulus

35
Q

Explain how the blinking reflex works

A

Stimulus: something touches the eye
Receptors: impulse - sensory neuron to CNS
CNS: passed from relay neuron to motor neuron
Effector: motor neurons send impulses to muscles that move eyelid
Response: muscles contract
= eyelids close quickly (prevents damage)

36
Q

Explain the knee jerk reflex

A

Stimulus: detects quadriceps has been stretched
Receptors: stretch receptors in quadriceps muscles detect that muscle is being stretched, then impulse passed along sensory neuron
CNS: sensory neuron communicates with motor neuron in spinal cord
Effectors: motor neuron carries impulse to quadriceps
Response: quadriceps muscle contracts so lower legs move forwards

37
Q

Describe the flight or fight response (ACTH)

A

Hypothalamus releases a peptide hormone = stimulates anterior pituitary gland - release ACTH
ATCH transported to adrenal glands through bloodstream
= adrenal cortex secrete cortisol
Cortisol = stimulates target organs + tissues to increase blood pressure, blood glucose
= ensures tissues have sufficient glucose + O2 for rapid response
Cortisol also suppresses the immune system

38
Q

Describe fight or flight response (adrenaline)

A

Heart rate increases
Muscles around bronchioles relax, causing airways to widen
inter coastal muscles and diaphragm contract faster
Glycogen is converted to glucose
erector pill muscles contract

39
Q

During fight or flight response, what does the pituitary gland release?

A

Pituitary gland is stimulated to release a hormone called ACTH,

which causes the cortex of the adrenal gland to release steroidal hormones.

40
Q

Once the sympathetic nervous system is activated, what is released?

A

Adrenaline is released from the medulla region of the adrenal gland.

41
Q

Coordinating the Fight or Flight Response: pituitary gland’s role

A

Sensory inputs feed into sensory areas of cerebral cortex (outer layer of the cerebrum)
signals pass to association areas + compare inputs to previous experiences, make interpretations and judgements.
threat recognised = cerebrum stimulates the hypothalamus
hypothalamus stimulates release of hormones from anterior pituitary gland

42
Q

How does the hypothalamus cause Anterior Pituitary to release its hormones

A

hypothalamus releases either CRH or TRH
these stimulate release of tropic hormones
from endocrine cells in anterior pituitary
CRH = ACTH = adrenal cortex
TRH = TSH = thyroid
enter bloodstream + travel to target cell in thyroid/ adrenal cortex

43
Q

What are tropic hormones

A

hormones that act on other endocrine glands.

44
Q

Effect of ACTH + TSH

A

ACTH = trigger release of glucocorticoids e.g. cortisol - regulate metabolism of carbohydrates
TSH = stimulate thyroid gland to release more thyroxine = inc metabolic rate = make cells more sensitive to adrenaline

45
Q

Mechanism of adrenaline action

A

?

46
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

speeds up activity
Within medulla oblongata region of the brain, exists the cardiovascular nervous system control centre
= links to SAN of the heart by the sympathetic/ accelerans nerve.

47
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

slows down activity
Within medulla oblongata region of the brain, exists the
cardiovascular nervous system control centre
= links to SAN of heart by parasympathetic (or vagus) nerve.

47
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

slows down activity
Within medulla oblongata region of the brain, exists the
cardiovascular nervous system control centre
= links to SAN of heart by parasympathetic (or vagus) nerve.

48
Q

Function of chemoreceptors
(location)

A

monitored for changes in blood pH
located in the carotid artery, aorta + brain.
receptors in muscles detect pH of muscles = monitor oxygen requirements.
Stretch receptors in walls of carotid sinus monitor blood pressure.

49
Q

Control of Blood pH - links to exercise. Exercising means more CO 2 = decreases pH.

A
  1. chemoreceptors detect change in pH
  2. decreased pH level = level of co2 in bloodstream = above normal
  3. Chemoreceptors send impulses to cardiac accelerator nervous system centre in medulla oblongata (part of the brain involved in controlling heart rate)
  4. cardiovascular accelerator NS centre acts to inc heart rate by sending an increased frequency of signals via the
    accerlerans nerve = more noradrenaline neurotransmitter + adrenaline the hormone to be released from the
    adrenal glands
  5. travels to the SAN in the heart
  6. SAN works to inc heart rate, increasing blood flow to the muscles where excess carbon dioxide is removed from the blood during ventilation .
50
Q

Increase in pH – controlling heart rate after exercise

A
  1. Chemoreceptors detect changes in blood pH.
  2. inc pH level = level of co2 in bloodstream = below normal
  3. Chemoreceptors send impulses to cardiac inhibitory NS centre in medulla oblongata (part of the brain involved in controlling heart rate)
  4. cardiac inhibitory NS centre acts to decrease heart rate by sending an increased frequency of signals via the vagus nerve = more acetylcholine (Ach) neurotransmitter released
  5. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the SAN
  6. SAN works to decrease heart rate = decreasing blood flow
51
Q

Control of High Blood Pressure

A
  1. Stretch receptors located in the walls of the carotid sinus detect an increase in blood pressure
    2.stretch receptors send impulses to cardiovascular NS centre in the medulla oblongata (part of the brain involved in controlling heart rate)
  2. cardiovascular NS centre acts to decrease heart rate by sending signals via the vagus nerve = releases acetylcholine neurotransmitter to the SAN in the heart.
  3. SAN works to decrease heart rate = decreasing the rate of heart contraction
52
Q

Control of Low Blood Pressure

A
  1. stretch receptors located in the carotid artery detect an decrease in blood pressure
  2. stretch receptors send impulses to cardiovascular NS centre in the medulla oblongata (part of the brain involved in controlling heart rate)
  3. cardiovascular NS centre acts to increase heart rate by sending signals via accerlerans nerve = releases noradrenaline neurotransmitter to the SAN in the heart
  4. SAN works to increase heart rate = increasing rate of heart contractions
53
Q

Outline the structural differences between the 3 types of muscles

A

I + C = ANS
V = Somatic NS
I + C = uninucleated
V = multinucleated
V + C = striations present
I = no striations
V = contains many mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum,
+ protein filaments
I = contain bundles of actin + myosin
C = specialised cell membranes form intercalated discs

54
Q

Outline the functional differences between the 3 types of muscles

A

V = Moves skeleton at joints
I = Iris of eye,walls of arteries, arterioles, cervix
+ uterus. Walls of intestine: peristalsis movements.
C = Atrial + ventricular contraction in heart
V = Contracts quickly + powerfully
I = Contraction relatively slow
C = intermediate
V = Short, fatigues easily
I = Prolonged, tires slowly
C = intermediate

55
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

junction between a neuron and skeletal muscle

56
Q

Operation of neuromuscular junction

A
  1. Action potential arrives at axon terminal of motor neurone
  2. action potential triggers opening of voltage-gated Ca ion channels in presynaptic membrane allowing Ca ions to flow into axon terminal.
  3. presence of Ca ions triggers movement of vesicles, containing the neurotransmitter ACh, towards presynaptic membrane where they fuse = release of ACh into synaptic cleft by exocytosis
  4. activation of the cholinergic receptor molecules = opening of Na ion channels in the sarcolemma.
  5. Na ions enter muscle fibre through channels.
  6. ACh diffuses across cleft where it binds to cholinergic receptor molecules located in the sarcolemma (membrane around muscle fibre).
  7. presence Na ions inside muscle fibre = depolarisation. wave of depolarisation passes along sarcolemma + down a transverse tubule
  8. ACh molecules in synaptic cleft = broken down into choline + acetate by enzyme AChE.
  9. stops further activation of cholinergic receptors.
  10. products, choline + acetate = reabsorbed into motor neurone + recycled back into ACh inside vesicles = ready for next action potential to arrive
57
Q

Compare a synapse to neuromuscular junction

A

synapase
neurone to neurone cell connection
Ca ion diffuse into presynaptic knob
Na ion diffuse into postsynaptic membrane
neurotransmitter = ACh, noradrenaline
smooth + rounded synaptic knob
neurotransmitter stored in vesicles in presynaptic cytoplasm
neuromusclular junction
neurone to sarcomere cell connection
Ca ion diffuse into presynaptic knob
Na ion diffuse into postsynaptic membrane
neurotransmitter = ACh
microvilli present in synaptic knob + flattened shape along muscle fibre
neurotransmitter stored in vesicles in presynaptic cytoplasm

58
Q

What is one motor unit

A

one motor neuron from CNS making neuromuscular junctions

59
Q

What is the stimulation of 1 motor unit

A

few muscle fibres contracting
= weak contraction

60
Q

What is the stimulation of many motor units

A

lots of muscle fibres contracting
= forceful contraction

61
Q

What is the graduation of a response

A

method of creating different strengths of contraction

62
Q

Tonus

A

shows amount of force used to flex fingers
some motor units = relaxing
others = contracting
constant state = slight contraction

63
Q

Tonus

A

shows amount of force used to flex fingers
some motor units = relaxing
others = contracting
constant state = slight contraction

64
Q

Graduation of response

A

inc force applied to squeezing a ball
initial = small force = use few motor units
greater force = more use of motor units

65
Q

Fatigue

A

muscle group forced to function at max level or prolonged periods of time
= will fatigue
results when muscle use energy faster than replenished
+ when waste products accumulate

66
Q

Skeletal muscles structure

A

Muscle fibres made of many individual cells
Multinucleate fibres
Each fibre surrounded by sarcolemma
Within sarcoplasm exists lots of sarcoplasmic reticulum
Striated (striped) appearance
Inside one muscle fibre = many myofibrils

67
Q

Sarcomere

A

distance between 2 Z lines

Biology (24 decks)

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