Criminal Flashcards
What are the biological explanations for crime and anti-social behaviour?
Head injury- Williams et al.(2010) found that from 196 inmates of a UK prison, 60% suffered a brain injury.
Amygdala and aggression- Rain et al. (1997) found that murderers who pleaded not guilty due to reasons of insanity found there was less activity in the left amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. Controlling behaviours.
XXY syndrome- males born with an additional Y chromosome- generally taller and less intelligent, impulsive and experience behavioural difficulties. Prison population is 9 in 315 and general population is 1 in 315.
Support for brain injuries
Fazel et al (2011) analysed data from the Swedish population. Those who had experienced ABI (acquired brain injury) 8.8% committed violent crimes, while 3% of the controlled matched pairs.
However this doesn’t show causation as they may have been other factors as people who experience brain injuries are also more likely to experience mental illness, drug and alcohol abuse.
Relationship between the amygdala and crime
The amygdala doesn’t operate alone but heavily influenced by the OFC (orbitofrontal cortex), which is apart of the frontal lobe and not apart of the limbic system. This regulates self control and reduce functioning is thought to increase aggression.
Are XYY and offending related?
They are unrelated and there is a lack of evidence. Re and Birkoff (2015) considered 5- years of evidence and concluded that there is no link between crime and XYY chromosomes. It may be explained with social factors.
Application of biological explanations
William et al argue to raise awareness of brain injuries throughout the criminal justice system, screening young people when they are first offending. It is used is decision making in criminal trails.
Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality
Extraversion and introversion. Extraversion are more likely to take risks and don’t condition easily (learn from their mistakes). Neuroticism (nervous- difficult to predict) and stability. Criminal personality type is extravert-neurotic.
What is the biological basis for personality explaining crime and anti-social behaviour?
Personality traits can be explained by the type of of nervous system we inherit. Extraverts can be explained with an underactive nervous system which requires a unusually high levels of arousal. Similarly those who score high on neuroticism scales are volatile and react strongly to situations other would find less stressful, or even neutral.
What is the third-dimension (psychoticism)?
Later on Eysenck added a third dimension to the criminal type. Less clear in terms of its connection to the nervous system. Individuals who are seen as self-centred, cold, lack empathy for others. Criminal type is characterised by a person who scores highly on all three dimensions. Developed Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), places respondents along the E, N, and P dimensions to determine a personality type.
What is the socialisation process?
Eysenck did acknowledge in most people the socialisation process in childhood will determine whether a person becomes law-abiding or not. However, extraverts are natural reward seekers makes less receptive to operant conditioning and therefore less effective to punishment for wrongdoing. High neuroticism interferes with efficient learning which may relate to difficulty taking on broad social rules. Extravert-neurotics more likely to behave anti-socially.
Evaluation of explanations for crime and anti-social behaviour- Personality- Strength
Empirical basis and there is supporting evidence the existence of a criminal type. Boduszek et al. (2013) investigated the prevalence of Eysenck’s personality among repeat offenders (recidivism). 133 violent and 179 non-violent male prisoners in a high-security prison. Criminal thinking ‘style’ is correlated with high levels of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism .
Evaluation of explanations for crime and anti-social behaviour- Personality- Strength (opposing)
However, evidence for criminal personality is not conclusive. Farrington et al (1982) found very little evidence for Eysenck’s questionnaire was an adequate measure for predicting offending in juveniles and adults, may lack validity.
Evaluation of explanations for crime and anti-social behaviour- Personality- Weakness (other models)
There is only one type of criminal personality. Recent models have challenged Eysenck’s model. Five factor model (Digman 1990) adds on openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness. Of these, low agreeableness and conscientiousness are related to repeat offending. Lipsey and Derzon 1998 claim that impulsivity is a better predictor of anti-social behaviour
Evaluation of explanations for crime and anti-social behaviour- Personality- Strength of biological basis
Raine et al (1990) took physiological measures from participants aged 15 years and related these to later criminal status. Those with a criminal record 24 years later had recorded more signs of under arousal in the nervous system when aged 15 years. But there is also likely to be lots of social variables in predicting criminal behaviour.
Evaluation of explanations for crime and anti-social behaviour- Personality- Application
Useful applications in preventing crime. Theory argues that criminal tendencies, such as lack of response to conditioning can be identified in early childhood. This means that if intervention comes early enough, it would be possible to modify the socialisation experiences of high-risk individuals to prevent them from becoming offenders. Such experiences may be best delivered in school or at home with support of external agencies. Tackling crime, Eysenck’s theory may be beneficial.
Explanations of crime and anti-social behaviour: social explanation- Labelling
Humans are given labels to enable us to make judgements about what is going on in the inside- what kind of person they are. Labelling someone a ‘deviant’, that will come to define them and how society behaves towards them.
Labelling theory
Becker (1963), sociologist, argues that powerful groups in society create deviance by making up rules and applying them to people they see as an ‘outsider’. Social contruct.
Self fulfilling prophecy
The ‘deviant’ label comes to see themselves in that way due to stereotyped response of other towards their label, making their deviant behaviour more likely. Stigmatised and isolated behaviour from society, the offender seeks support from other deviants. Draws the individual further into the crime, confirming their criminal identity and deviant status.
Observational learning with criminals
Criminal behaviour is learned indirectly by observing and imitating others. The behaviour must be attended to, recalled, have the skill and capacity to carry out the behaviour and then motivated to carry it out.
Vicarious reinforcement in crime
Criminal behaviour is to be imitated, it must be seen to be rewarded. It is not difficult to see how offending behaviour could be rewarded, through the acquisition of money, increase status of criminal gang.
Role models in crime
Social learning theory is a development explanation that can account for the development of criminal activity at different ages. Young offenders may be more susceptible to the influence of role models. Young offender looks up to and want to be in an gang like for having respect and enjoy their lifestyle that is glamorous and attractive.
Evaluation of crime and anti-social behaviour: social explanations- Strength
Jahoda (1954) studied the Ashanti of Ghana where boys are named after the day they were born, Monday (Kwadwo) were thought to be even tempered compared to Wednesday (Kawdku), thought to be aggressive. Wednesday boys were 3x more likely to be involved in a violent crime that Monday boys over a 5 year period.
Evaluation of crime and anti-social behaviour: social explanations- Strength- opposing
Zebrowitz (1998) found that boys with a ‘baby face’ were more likely than matured faced peers to be delinquent and involved in crimes. Overcompensating for the perception of being ‘weak’ or ‘childlike’ rather than accepting the ‘baby/innocent’ label
Evaluation of crime and anti-social behaviour: social explanations- Weakness
There is a limited amount of evidence for labelling as applied to crime. Jacobsen and Rosenthal found that that was a teacher student relationship, much different when it comes to crime. This makes to much more difficult to replicate them in the context of crime.
What did Jacobsen and Rosenthal find out?
Labelled half of the class as ‘bloomers’ and told the other half they had reached their potential. They found that the IQ of the ‘bloomers’ had increases, while those who were told they have reached their potential, their IQ dropped.
Evaluation of crime and anti-social behaviour: social explanations- Application
Braithwaite (1989) societies have lower crime rates and reoffending rates if they communicate about the crime effectively. Reintegrative shaming is preferable to to disintegrative shaming. The offender is demonised by society and the criminal justice system which means they are more likely to reject a new way of life and return to their ‘old ways’ upon release. Offender receives support and help and are less likely to continue offending and retake their place in society.
Police interviewing techniques. What are the main techniques for a cognitive interview?
Report everything and reinstate the context to get as much information as possible.
Reverse order and change the perspective to reduce the chance of schemas.
What is enhanced interviewing?
Developing the original techniques but pay more attention between the interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee like maintain eye contact, reduce distractions, asking open-ended questions and getting the witness to speak slowly rather tan rushing (Fisher et al 1987)
What are the ethical interviewing techniques?
Royal Commission on Criminal Justice in 1991 concluded that many false confessions and miscarriages of justice were the result of police using unethical interviewing. Police making threats, false promises and even using physical force to extract confessions. Teach officers to keep an open mind and behave less aggressively towards suspects.
What is the PEACE model?
Developed in the 1990s and was a collaboration between law enforcement agencies and psychologists in England and Wales. Based on the idea that suspects are more likely to cooperate with police and give a true confession. Relaxed, secure, not threatened. P= preparation and planning. E= engage and explain. A= account, clarification, challenge. C= closure (suspect asks questions) E= Evaluate
Evaluation of cognitive interview techniques- Strength
Geiselman and colleagues (1985) showed participants a film of a violent crime and later they were interviewed by an officer using either cognitive interview or a standard interview or an interview hypnosis. The average number of accurately recalled facts was 41.2 for the cognitive interview, 29.4 for the standard interview and 38.0 for the hypnosis. Cognitive interviews lead to more superior recall compared to alternative interviewing techniques.
Evaluation of cognitive interview techniques- Weakness
Kohnken et al (1999) recorded an 81% increase in correct information using CI techniques but also increase 61% of incorrect information, compared with standard interviewing techniques.
Evaluation of ethical interview techniques- strength
Christianson (2002) carried out a study on murderers and sex offenders found that when characterised by intimidation and dominance had more denials. EI may result in more cooperative interviewees.
Evaluation of ethical interview techniques- weakness
EI means police are unlikely to engage in the kinds of questionable practises that have led to wrongful arrested such as Colin Stagg (accused of murder but was dismissed- innocent). Gudjonsson (1992) argues that some EI techniques are naïve, and that ‘social skills’ approach to questioning should not entirely replace more persuasive methods.
Evaluation of cognitive and ethical interview techniques- application
Milne and Bull (2002) observed any individual elements of CI in isolation tend to be more effective at eliciting accurate information than standard interview techniques. Combination of report everything and context reinstatement was the better options. Time consuming but uses abridged versions of the CI in some circumstances.
What is cognitive behaviour treatment?
Novaco (1975) suggest that offenders inability to control their anger leads them commit crimes. Some offenders are more likely to see an situation as threatening and stressful. It comes in 3 stages: Cognitive preparation (offenders find out what triggers them), skill acquisition (relaxation techniques), and application and practise (role play)
What was the Ireland study?
Sample- randomly allocated to either a treatment group of 12 sessions or on the waitlist group. Assessed two weeks before and eight weeks after. 92% of the treatment group showed significant improvement on one measure and 48% showed improvement on both measures. Controlled group showed no improvements on any measure. Anger management is more effective than no treatment at all, more effective with those with a history of violence.
