1.2 Changing population and places Flashcards
(164 cards)
1
Q
Define demography
A
The study of population dynamics and changes.
2
Q
Key demographic terms
A
-Crude birth rate (CBR)
-Crude death rate (CDR)
-Natural increase (NI)
-Life expectancy
-Fertility rate
-Infant mortality rate
3
Q
Define crude birth rate (CBR)
A
The number of live births per 1,000 people per year in a region.
4
Q
Spacial and temporal variations in crude birth rate (CBR)
A
-In pre-industrial societies, the rate is around 45/1,000/year: today, only a few remaining isolated rainforest tribes have a CBR close to this figure.
-The European average is 11/1,000/year.
-The CBR becomes lower not only on account of falling fertility but also due to increasing life expectancy (which means a higher proportion of each 1,000 people are not of child-bearing age).
5
Q
Define crude death rate (CDR)
A
The number of deaths per 1,000 people per year in a region (a measure of mortality).
6
Q
Spacial and temporal variations in crude death rate (CDR)
A
-In pre-industrial societies, the rate is 40–50/1,000/year.
-Today, the European average is 10/1,000/year.
-The CDR can increase due to disasters or disease: in Haiti, in 2010, it rose from 8 to 32/1,000/year on account of a large earthquake.
7
Q
Define natural increase (NI)
A
-The difference between the CBR and CDR.
-It can be recorded either as the net change per 1,000 people or as a percentage.
8
Q
Spacial and temporal variations in natural increase (NI)
A
-It is rare for a country’s rate of NI to exceed 3 per cent per annum.
-Youthful migrant populations, such as those found in developing world megacities, have a high rate of NI due to the presence of a large proportion of fertile adults and relatively fewer older people.
9
Q
Define life expectancy
A
The average number of years a member of a particular society can expect to live.
10
Q
Spacial and temporal variations in life expectancy
A
-The average world life expectancy is now 71 (in 1960 it was 52).
-In most of Latin America and Asia, the figure is 70 years or higher.
-In 2015, the world’s lowest was 49 in Swaziland; the highest was 84 in Japan (South Korea is predicted to overtake Japan soon, however).
-In most countries, national averages obscure a difference between men and women of around six years (Japan’s female life expectancy is 87; for men it is 81).
11
Q
Define fertility rate
A
The average number of children a woman gives birth to during her lifetime.
12
Q
Spacial and temporal variations in fertility rate
A
-Today, most countries have an average fertility rate of three children or fewer, whereas in 1950 the world average was five.
-Fertility has fallen throughout Asia.
-Some sub-Saharan African countries still have a high rate of seven or eight.
13
Q
Define infant mortality rate
A
The number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births per year.
14
Q
Spacial and temportal variations in infant mortality rate
A
-Globally, estimates of the average rate vary between 42 and 49.
-This uncertainty reflects the difficulties of recording the data in an accurate and consistent way in different states.
-Afghanistan had the world’s highest rate in 2015 (115 per 1,000).
15
Q
Graph showing falling fertility in Asia between 1950 and 2014
A
16
Q
What does the term ‘population structure’ refer to?
A
The division of a population into a series of groups according to age and gender.
17
Q
How is population structure shown?
A
As a population pyramid for a particular historical year.
18
Q
How do population pyramids work?
A
-People are divided into cohorts (age groups) placed either side of the vertical axis, with males on one side and females on the other.
-The size of each age group can be shown either as an actual number (in thousands or millions) or as a percentage of the total population.
19
Q
Define population structure
A
The make-up of a population in terms of age, gender, occupation, ethnicity or any other selected criterion.
20
Q
What is a population pyramid?
A
A type of bar chart used to show the proportion of males and females belonging to different cohorts (age groups) for a place or country.
21
Q
What do population pyramids allow us to see?
A
-How fertility rates and life expectancy have affected a country or smaller-scale place’s population structure.
-We may also be able to see what the effects of past migration, wars, disasters, economic recessions or epidemics have been on particular age groups, or men and women.
22
Q
Example of how population pyramids can show economic changes
A
-Most European population pyramids for 2015 show a dip in the number of people aged 40 compared with those aged 45: this reflects a global economic crisis in the early 1970s which led many couples to delay having children.
-As a result, fewer babies were being born in 1975 (the people aged 40 in 2015) compared with 1970 (the people aged 45 in 2015).
23
Q
When comparing the population pyramids of different countries, which important characteristics can be identified to offer clues about their relative levels of economic development?
A
-Concave sides
-A wide base
-Perpendicular sides
24
Q
What do concave sides indicate on a population pyramid?
A
-This can indicate low life expectancy and a very high death rate.
-This is because few individuals survive to move from one cohort to the next (but note that concave sides for a city’s population pyramid might be caused by youthful in-migration rather than high mortality).
25
What does a wide base indicate on a population pyramid?
-A relatively high birth rate but low life expectancy.
-As a result, the pyramid narrows rapidly because large numbers of those born are not surviving to reach an older age.
26
What do perpendicular sides indicate on a population pyramid?
-That the majority of those born survive to an old age.
-This indicates a middle- or high-income county.
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One common feature of most age-sex pyramids is more ___ surviving into the oldest cohorts.
Women than men
28
A population pyramid with annotations that explain irregularities
29
Contrasting population pyramids for a low-income and middle-income country
30
What is the dependancy ratio?
-A shorthand measure that compares the proportion of a population that is economically ‘non-productive’ with the proportion that (in theory) generates wealth.
-In practical terms, the youngest and oldest cohorts are unproductive dependants whereas the middle-aged groups are wealth producers.
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What does the dependancy ratio express?
The relationship between the active and inactive segments of a society.
32
What formula is used to calculate the dependancy ratio?
33
What does a high dependancy ratio of around 60-70 suggest?
-A lack of balance.
-It indicates that there are relatively high numbers of dependants in comparison with working taxpayers.
34
Why is the dependancy ratio changing in many HICs and emerging economies?
-Because the numbers of retired people is increasing.
-For instance, only 60 per cent of UK citizens are of working age.
35
What do taxes on the wages of working people help pay for in the UK?
The state pensions of the 21 per cent who are retired; the costs of schooling the young; and healthcare costs for both dependent groups.
36
In what country is dependancy predicted to become an even greater challenge?
Japan
37
Graph showing the changing dependent population in Japan between 1950 and 2050 (projected)
38
Why is the dependancy ratio a very crude and potentially unreliable measure?
-The age of 15 is a poor choice of dividing line for youthful dependency: in many countries, young people remain at school or college until later.
-The proportion of women who work and pay taxes that fund services for the elderly varies greatly between countries. This is not to say women who do not undertake salaried work should be classed as ‘dependent’. More often than not, unsalaried working-age women are playing an essential (if unpaid) social and economic role that involves looking after children and managing households.
-Many children in some middle- and low-income countries do not attend school. They work instead, despite United Nations actions to prevent this from happening.
-Many elderly people in developed countries actively create wealth. Many retired people own sizeable assets such as rental properties or company shares, which generate an income. Others continue to work
39
What is the demographic transition model (DTM)?
A generalized attempt to establish linkages between a sequence of population changes occurring over time and the economic development of a country.
40
What happens to CBR and CDR over the years as a country develops economically and the population changes?
They are both lowered. There are many possible reasons for this.
41
What does the DTM show?
How a country's population changes over time as it develops economically.
42
Describe the different stages of the DTM
Stage 1: Stable small population with a high CBR and high CDR
Stage 2: Rising population with a high CBR and a decreasing CDR (e.g. Niger)
Stage 3: Rising population with a decreasing CBR and a further decreasing CDR (e.g. India)
Stage 4: Stable high population with a low CBR and a low CDR (e.g. USA)
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Fifth stage of the DTM
-In recent years, a fifth stage has emerged as additional changes to the CBR and CDR have been observed.
-Stage 5- Decreasing population with a CBR lower than the CDR
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Diagram showing the demographic transition model (DTM)
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Diagram showing the demographic transition model (DTM)
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Reasons why CBR falls over time as a country develops
-Emancipation of women
-Political changes
-Compulsory education
-State healthcare
-Secularization
-Materialistic society
-State welfare
-Decline of the family as a unit of production
-
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Reasons why CDR falls over time as a country develops
-Improved food supply
-Healthcare
-Hygiene, sanitation, and safety
48
Explain why the emancipation of women is a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
Over time, women become more independent and choose to limit their family size, especially if they have career ambitions.
49
Explain why political changes are a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
New laws increasing the age of marriage will reduce the number of births.
50
Explain why compulsory education is a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
Well-educated people understand fully what the consequences of an unwanted pregnancy might be for their lives and careers; they are also aware of the availability of contraception.
51
Explain why state healthcare is a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
Government programmes may try to reduce teenage pregnancy and disease transmission by encouraging use of contraception.
52
Explain why secularization is a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
In some countries, a weakening of religious beliefs has led to changing attitudes towards abortion and birth control.
53
Explain why an increasingly materialistic is a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
In a consumer society, the cost of raising a child grows because of the expense of purchasing clothing, toys, holidays and technology
54
Explain why state welfare is a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
In many countries, people no longer rely on children to care for them in old age because the state provides healthcare and pensions.
55
Explain why the decline of the family as a unit of production is a reason for why CBR has fallen over time in many places
As countries develop, family life is no longer organized around subsistence farming. It may therefore make less economic sense to have many children.
56
Explain why improved food supply is a reason for why CDR has fallen over time in many places
Agricultural revolutions may include (1) the intensification of farming and increased food yields on existing lands and (2) the extensification of production to make use of remoter areas as transport infrastructure improves.
57
Example of how improved food supply is a reason for why CDR has fallen over time in many places
For instance, between 1650 and 1750, important changes were made to crop rotation systems in Europe, allowing additional food to be grown.
58
Explain why healthcare is a reason for why CDR has fallen over time in many places
-Disease prevention and treatments have improved globally.
-Well-planned economies can provide comprehensive care (e.g. the UK’s National Health Service).
-Emergency services/ambulances can provide immediate help for injured people.
59
Example of how healthcare is a reason for why CDR has fallen over time in many places
Immunization against polio has led to its eradication in many states; smallpox has vanished.
60
Explain how hygiene, sanitation, and safety are reasons why CDR has fallen over time in many places
-When sewer systems were installed in nineteenth-century European cities, life expectancy rose.
-Globally, primary school education aims to raise public awareness of the means by which diseases are transmitted.
-Most countries have health and safety laws that regulate many aspects of everyday life, including: road safety and seat-belt use; rules about smoking and alcohol use; fire exits for buildings; safety tests for technology and toys.
-We belong to risk-averse societies.
61
Which falls first in the DTM: the CBR or the CDR?
-The crude death rate falls first (as food supply improves and medicine becomes available).
-Only much later does the crude birth rate fall (when women finally begin to produce fewer children as a result of more progressive cultural, legislative and economic changes in society).
62
Because the CDR falls before the CBR, there is a ___
Time lag between the economically induced fall in CDR and the later fall in CBR, which is governed by cultural and not merely economic changes.
63
Why is it difficult to predict how long the time lag will be between the CDR and the CBR falling?
Different societies vary greatly in terms of their religious and cultural beliefs.
64
Example of place where the demographic transition took a long time
Europe (the entire process took approximately 200 years to complete)
65
Example of a place where the demographic transition was fast
Thailand and China have completed the entire transition more recently in just a few decades.
66
DTM in Africa
-Currently, there is no way of knowing how long fertility will remain high in many African countries and regions.
-That will depend on how strong local resistance to cultural change remains.
-For this reason, population projections for Africa in 2100 range from 2.5 billion to 4 billion people.
-We can predict that all African states will most likely enter stage 3 of the DTM eventually; however, we cannot say when this will happen with much confidence.
67
Case studies for 1.2
-Population change in the UK
-Population change in Bangladesh
-Dhaka- megacity growth
-Militia groups
-The political and environmental causes of Syria's refugee crisis
68
How did population change in the UK in the 20th century?
Birth rates and death rates fell in the UK during the twentieth century, continuing a trend that dates even further back to the early 1700s.
69
What are the two important phases of population change that stand out during the 1900s?
Phase 1: Before the 1970s
Phase 2: Since the 1970s
70
Why did population grow in the UK before the 1970s?
There was a positive, though gradually declining, rate of natural increase.
71
Population change in the UK before the 1970s
-Population was still growing due to natural increase.
-The death rate had been falling since the 1800s, thanks to major improvements in food supply, health and hygiene.
-This trend continued during the early decades of the 1900s, bringing the death rate to its current low level by mid-century.
-However, it took until the 1970s, and the end of a post-Second World War ‘baby boom’, for the declining birth rate to reach the same low level as the death rate, finally bringing natural increase largely to a halt.
72
When is the UK viewed as having entered stage 4 of the DTM?
Low growth in the 1930s means that the UK is widely viewed as having entered stage 4 then, rather than in the 1970s.
73
How much did the population of the UK grow between 1901 and 1970?
The total population grew by 17 million.
74
Graph showing changes in the CBR and CDR in the UK, 1700 to present
75
In the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, population increased more ___
Slowly
76
In the UK, what has caused the new population growth in recent years?
Immigration and people living longer (the number of over-80s will double from 3 to 6 million between 2010 and 2030).
77
CDR and CBR in the UK since the 1970s
-Both the death rate and the birth rate have remained at a low and constant level.
-As a result, family sizes are small while life expectancy keeps creeping ever upwards, thanks to science and medicine.
-However, the birth rate began to creep upwards again a few years ago.
78
Why has the birth rate began to creep upwards again a few years ago in the UK?
-This is partly on account of the very large numbers of migrant women of child-bearing age currently living in the UK (a third of all new births are registered to foreign nationals).
-Also, more older women who have postponed having children are now managing successfully to have children at a later age, thanks to improved fertility treatments.
79
Summary of population growth in the UK since the 1970s
Total population grew by 10 million between 1971 and 2017, with migration and migrant births playing an increasingly important role.
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The UK's population pyramid, 2001 (outline) and 2012
81
Regional variations in the UK's population structure
-Regionally, there are noticeable variations in the UK’s population structure, fertility rate and life expectancy.
-The highest life expectancy is found in the Isle of Purbeck, where women now live on average to the age of 87.
-In contrast, male life expectancy in the city of Glasgow is 72.
82
What is the green revolution?
A period when the productivity of global agriculture increased greatly as a result of new technologies including fertilizers and selectively bred high-yield crops.
83
Define replacement level
The fertility rate required to maintain a population at its current size.
84
Overview of recent demographic changes in Bangladesh
-Bangladesh is well on the way to completing its demographic transition: the country is very close to entering stage 4 of the DTM.
-Between 1990 and 2010, life expectancy rose by 10 years, from 59 to 69 (the UK reached this figure in 1949).
85
Why has life expectancy risen in Bangladesh in recent years?
-In part, this is due to improved healthcare and reduced infant mortality.
-Also, the famines which some Asian countries once suffered from have become a thing of the past, thanks largely to modern agricultural techniques and the green revolution.
86
What has been the most striking demographic trend in Bangladesh?
The way that fertility has plummeted in just 30 year.
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Why have fertility rates fallen in Bangladesh?
Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh’s government has adopted policies that have helped bring this about without coercion.
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Examples of government policies in Bangladesh that helped bring about a decrease in fertility rate without coercion.
-Government employees and volunteers have worked tirelessly to distribute free contraceptive pills and advice across the entire country: in 1975, 8 per cent of women of child-bearing age were using contraception (or had partners who were); in 2010 the number was over 60 per cent.
-The proportion of girls who are schooled has increased over the same time period.
-Family planning, education and changing social attitudes have empowered women by giving them greater autonomy. As a result, more women have decided to follow careers and have delayed having children.
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What was the result of government policies in Bangladesh to reduce fertility rates?
-The result is a fertility rate that fell rapidly by 2.9 from 1975 to 1993.
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Graphs showing changes in fertility rate and life expectancy for Bangladesh
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Bangladesh's population pyramid in 1950, 2010, and 2050 (projected). Age groups are shown as a percentage of the total population.
92
Give an overview of the consequences of megacity growth
-Urban growth on a very large scale can help provide a wide range of work opportunities for new migrants and established megacity residents.
-However, it may give rise to potentially insurmountable social and environmental challenges too.
93
Give two examples of developing world megacities
Mumbai and Karachi
94
How will the aspirations of young people change as wealth grows in developing countries and emerging economies
More young rural people will develop aspirations beyond agriculture.
95
What changes will continued growth of Mumbai, Karachi, and other megacities bring?
-Continued growth of these and other megacities is inevitable.
-As wealth grows in developing countries and emerging economies, more young rural folk will develop aspirations beyond agriculture.
-Continued arrivals of large numbers of new people threaten the sustainability of these places, however.
96
Rapid megacity growth driven by rural-urban migration in Mumbai
-India’s Mumbai urban area is now home to around 23 million people, having more than doubled in size since 1970.
-People flock there from the impoverished rural states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
-Urban employment
-Dharavi is a slum housing area in Mumbai.
97
Urban development in Mumbai
-Urban employment covers a range of sectors and skill levels. Global brands like Hilton and Starbucks are present in Mumbai.
-In retail areas, like Colaba Causeway, large numbers of people work selling goods to the country’s rising middle class.
98
Dharavi slum housing area in Mumbai
-It has a buoyant economy: 5,000 people are employed in its plastics recycling industries.
-However, rising land prices across Mumbai mean there is great pressure to redevelop this and other slum areas.
99
Rapid megacity growth driven by rural-urban migration in Karachi (city in Pakistan)
-Approximately 24 million people lived in Karachi in 2015, making it the most highly populated city in Pakistan and one of the world’s five most populous megacities (Tokyo is the largest).
-This colossal megacity is Pakistan’s centre of finance, industry and trade. People flock to the city for work from rural areas all over Pakistan, including the Sindh and Punjab provinces.
100
Employment opportunities in Karachi
Once living there, rural–urban migrants can find formal or informal employment in a range of industrial sectors including shipping, banking, retailing and manufacturing.
101
What are the three interrelated goals that city managers must pursue if they are to provide for sustainable urban living?
-Providing work and economic opportunities for millions of people
-Achieving long-term holistic environmental management (land, water, air)
-Safeguarding the quality of life of different groups of people (housing and schools)
102
Examples of top-down strategies that can help deliver one or all of the goals that city managers must pursue if they are to provide for sustainable urban living
This includes robust policies for job creation, such as the establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) where low tax rates are used to attract foreign investors and promote industrial growth.
103
Costs and benefits of SEZs in Jakarta (Indonesia) and Shenzhen (China)
-EZs in Jakarta (Indonesia) and Shenzhen (China) have made these megacities magnets for investment and migration.
-However, they have also given rise to ‘overheating’ problems, including traffic congestion and air pollution (dubbed ‘airpocalypse’ in China).
104
What is a Special Economic Zone (SEZ)?
A part of a city or country where business tax and trading laws are more liberal than those found in the rest of the state, for the purposes of stimulating investment and industrial activity.
105
How has China accommodated rural-urban migration?
By planning and constructing new housing and cities on an enormous scale.
106
Describe the presence of megacities in China
There are 6 megacities in China
107
Struggles of housing policies in growing megacities
-Even the best-planned housing policies can struggle to match demand with supply in megacities where hundreds of thousands of new arrivals are added to the population annually.
-Housing shortages are especially acute in the African megacities of Lagos and Kinshasa, where many people live in slums.
108
Diagram showing the three interconnected goals for sustainable megacity management
109
Examples of bottom-up urban community development strategies that may also play an important role in megacity management
-Poor migrant communities in Lagos, Nigeria must take ‘bottom-up’ steps to improve their local environment and access to housing by themselves without much state support.
-As a result, squatter settlements have grown throughout Lagos.
-They are densely populated owing to the shortage of available housing and land.
110
Slum settlement of Makoko in Lagos
-In the case of Makoko, a slum settlement on the edge of Lagos Lagoon, makeshift homes have been built above the water on stilts.
-People use materials like tin sheets and wooden planks.
-They have also reclaimed land from the lagoon using waste materials and sawdust to create new islands for building on.
-The population of Makoko is 86,000 people
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Where do most people in Makoko work?
-Most people make a living in the informal economy, including fishing.
-This goes back to Makoko’s origins as a fishing village outside Lagos: as the city grew it has been swallowed up in the urban area.
112
What is Dhaka?
Capital of Bangladesh
113
Statistic showing the rapid population growth in Dhaka, Bangladesh
-Between 1990 and 2005, the city doubled in size from 6 to 12 million.
114
Overview of the challenges for Dhaka as a megacity
Half of Dhaka’s population lives in slums, many of which have grown in unsafe areas beside rail lines, along riverbanks, and in swampy and disease-ridden areas.
115
Employment and job opportunities in Dhaka
-According to one report titled The Megacity of the Poor, about 70 percent of Dhaka’s households earn less than US$170 per month; many take home less than half that.
-Many migrants arriving in Dhaka will work for low pay in the country’s textile industry, which is its largest economic sector. Foreign TNCs have flocked to Dhaka in recent years.
116
Health and safety concerns at workplaces in Bangladesh
There has been international concern over standards of health and safety at work in Bangladesh following the highly publicized collapse of the Rana Plaza factory in 2011, which led to the deaths of over one thousand workers.
117
Why do rural migrants continue to come to Dhaka, even with all of its problems?
-They believe – rightly or wrongly – that life there will be an improvement on the village they have left behind.
-The Bhola district, for instance, is located in southern Bangladesh. This region is vulnerable to climate change.
-Migration is seen as a potential adaptation strategy to the heightened risk of flooding.
-Women migrate in especially large numbers: a distinct Bhola slum has developed in Dhaka.
118
Explain how migration is seen as a potential adaptation strategy to the heightened risk of flooding in Bangladesh
-Some people have abandoned the area altogether. In other cases, families are attempting to relocate to higher or better-drained land.
-To meet the costs of moving, it becomes necessary for some household members to migrate to urban areas.
-There, they work and send money home as remittances to help their family adapt.
119
What issues does Dhaka's government have to be concerned with in addition to population and slum growth?
-Recently, the city has been a target for terrorists (in 2016, 20 people were shot dead in a restaurant).
-The city is also very vulnerable to flooding during the monsoon season (April–July). The 1988, 1998, and 2004 floods were particularly severe and brought large economic losses.
120
Despite all the challenges in Dhaka, it is also the ___
Crucial growth engine for an emerging economy.
121
Example of a conflict that generated a large number of internally displaced people
In 2016, the conflict in Syria, which started in 2011, had generated 5 million refugees and 6 million IDPs; half of those affected were children.
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What is a refugee?
A person who has been forced to leave his or her country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster.
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What are internally displaced people (IDPs)?
People who have found shelter in another part of their country after being forced to flee their homes.
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Statistic about refugees and IDPs
-The global total of displaced people now exceeds 60 million.
-Of these, around 40 million are internally displaced and 20 million are refugees.
125
What are the overarching causes of forced migration?
-Conflict
-Land grabbing
-Climate change
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Explain how conflict can be a cause of forced migration
-Between 1945 and 1970, most previously colonized African countries finally gained their freedom from European rule and became independent states.
-In the decades since then, widespread geopolitical instability within many of these newly independent countries has led to the widespread forced migration of people.
-Today, there are over 2 million refugees scattered across Africa.
-Large numbers are living in Chad, Kenya, and Sudan; significant source countries include Somalia, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Angola.
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What is land grabbing?
An economic injustice that involves the acquisition of large areas of land in developing countries by domestic governments and individuals, and MNCs.
128
Explain how land grabbing can be a cause of forced migration
-In some instances, the land is simply seized from vulnerable groups by powerful forces and not paid for.
-Indigenous groups, such as subsistence farming communities, may have no actual legal claim to their ancestral land.
-They sometimes lack the literacy and education needed to defend their rights in a court of law.
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Example of land grabbing
Amazonian rainforest tribes losing their land to logging companies.
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Explain how climate change can be a cause of forced migration
-Climate change acts to intensify rural poverty and conflict in some countries.
-Movers who might previously have been classed as economic migrants become refugees due to an increasingly hostile environment.
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Example of how climate change can cause forced migration (Horn of Africa)
Since 1990, millions of refugees have moved to escape drought in the Horn of Africa; many have moved from Somalia and Ethiopia into neighbouring Kenya.
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Define desertification
The intensification or extensification of arid, desert-like conditions.
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What different groups can face the consequences of forced migration?
-Migrants
-Neighboring countries
-HICs
134
Forced to flee their homes, IDPs and refugees suffer ___ and ___ losses
Economic and social
135
Example of economic losses that IDPs and refugees face
In many camps, adults are left unable to work; there are simply no opportunities to make a living.
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Example of social losses that IDPs and refugees face
-Children may cease to be schooled: this has highly damaging long-term impacts for these individuals and their societies. According to one estimate, half of all forced migrants are aged under 17 and as many as 90 percent no longer receive any education or satisfactory schooling.
-Life in refugee camps can be very tough for vulnerable groups, including the elderly, the very young, and women
-Psychological impacts
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Psychological problems that IDPs and refugees face
-Many refugees who have escaped horrific conditions continue to suffer trauma long afterward as a result.
-This includes large numbers of people who were forced to fight as child soldiers in Sierra Leone and DRC in the 1990s.
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Consequences of forced migration on neighbor states
-The majority of refugees do not attempt an ambitious long journey to a distant developed country. Instead, they travel no further than the nearest state neighboring their home country.
-For families with young children and sick, injured, or elderly relatives, it is easy to see why this is the case.
-This puts enormous pressure on states with the largest numbers of refugees, such as Turkey (where over 2 million Syrians now live).
139
Example of refugees coming into Europe
-Since 2006, rising numbers of refugees from North Africa and the Middle East have attempted to reach Europe by crossing the Mediterranean in unsafe fishing boats.
-By 2016, an estimated one million people had attempted the crossing, including many refugees of varying faiths and ethnicities from Syria and poor, war-torn African nations like Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia.
140
What issues have arisen for European countries as a result of the mass movement of refugees and IDPs?
-Financial costs
-Social problems and acceptance
-EU coastguards struggling to deal with deaths
141
Explain how EU coastguards struggle to deal with IDP and refugee deaths
-EU coastguards have struggled to prevent deaths at sea in the Mediterranean.
-Around 800 people died when a boat capsized in rough seas off the Italian coast near Lampedusa in April 2015.
-By the end of the same year, around 3,700 people had died in similar circumstances.
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Financial costs of IDPs and refugees for Europe
It is estimated to cost US$20,000 a year to cater to the needs of one recently arrived refugee who may be recovering from severe physical or psychological harm.
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Why do European countries take in refugees?
-All EU states – along with most other countries – are obliged to take in refugees, irrespective of whatever economic migration rules exist.
-This is because they have signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which guarantees all genuine refugees the right to seek and enjoy asylum from persecution.
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Social impacts of refugees on Europe
-Although the number of refugees granted asylum in 2015 amounted to less than 0.1 percent of the EU’s population, many European citizens are unhappy with what they view as a high number.
-It has become an emotive and increasingly divisive issue that divides communities and affects people’s voting behavior in elections.
-The debate intensified after a suicide bomber in the Paris attacks of December 2015 was identified as a Syrian refugee who had traveled to France via Greece.
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Positive impacts of forced migrants on HICs
In the longer term, many forced migrants will find employment and will contribute to the economy of the states that have granted them refuge.
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How does the UN provide protection to refugees?
-The Refugee Convention (1951) and Convention relating to Stateless Persons (1954)
-The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
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The Refugee Convention (1951)
-The 1951 Refugee Convention is the key legal document that forms the basis of all UN work in support of refugees.
-Signed by 144 states, it defines the term ‘refugee’ and outlines the rights of refugees, as well as the legal obligations of states to protect them.
-The core principle is ‘non-refoulement’.
-This means that refugees should not be returned to a country where they face serious threats to their life or freedom.
-This is now a core rule of international law.
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The 1954 Convention relating to Stateless Persons
This was designed to ensure that stateless people enjoy a minimum set of human rights. It established human rights and minimum standards of treatment for stateless people, including the right to education, employment, and housing.
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The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
-UNHCR serves as the ‘guardian’ of the 1951 Refugee Convention and other associated international laws and agreements.
-It has a mandate to protect refugees, stateless people, and people displaced internally.
-On a daily basis, it helps millions of people worldwide at a cost of around US$5 billion annually.
-UNHCR works often with the UN’s World Health Organization (WHO) to provide camps, shelter, food, and medicine to people who have fled the conflict.
-UNHCR also monitors compliance with the international refugee system.
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Describe the presence of militia groups since 2000
-Since 2000, destabilizing militia groups have arisen in numerous local contexts, including al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula and the Taliban in Afghanistan.
-Daesh (or IS) wages its so-called jihad against all other religions.
-Its soldiers have pursued a strategy of annihilating minority communities including Christian Assyrians, Kurds, Shabaks, Turkmens, and Yazidis.
-Many people have become refugees.
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What is a militia group?
-An armed non-official or informal military force raised by members of civil society.
-Militia groups may be characterized as either freedom fighters or terrorists in varying political contexts, or by different observers.
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Example of a militia group
-Boko Haram
-The Boko Haram militia group has gained notoriety on account of its brutal actions in Borno state in Nigeria and in neighboring Niger.
-‘Boko Haram’ translates loosely as ‘Western education is forbidden’.
-The militants are strongly opposed to what they see as the spread of Western culture, among which they include the culture of gender equality.
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Examples of action by Boko Haram
-In 2014, 200 Nigerian schoolgirls were abducted by the Boko Haram militant group.
-Other targets have included the police, students, the media, churchgoers, and ordinary civilians.
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What is life like for people who have found shelter in UN IDP camps? (as a result of the Boko Haram militia group)
-Life remains tough for people to even when they have found shelter in United Nations IDP camps.
-Human Rights Watch is a civil society organization (CSO) that has documented the rape of women and girls living in IDP camps in Maiduguri, in northeast Nigeria.
-Camp dwellers also live in constant fear of further attacks from Boko Haram.
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In recent years, ___ has become the world’s largest source region for refugees.
The Middle East
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Political causes of Syria's refugee crisis
-The current crisis in Syria began when rebel groups demanded the resignation of Syria’s ruling President Bashar al-Assad in 2011.
-The EU and USA initially supported some rebels but by 2015 found themselves bombing Daesh in Syria, effectively acting alongside Assad’s forces. Russia and Saudi Arabia have provided funding for rival armies of groups, fuelling the conflict further.
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Where have Syrian refugees fled to since the crisis began?
The majority have fled to Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan (rather than EU states)
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Environmental causes of Syria's refugee crisis
-US security analysts based at the Pentagon have in part attributed Syria’s refugee crisis to desertification.
-From 2006 to 2011, large areas of Syria suffered an extreme drought that, according to scientists, was exacerbated by climate change.
-The drought lead to increased poverty and relocation to urban areas.
-In turn, rising unemployment in cities triggered unrest and conflict.
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How were young girls affected by China's one-child policy?
Young girls in China were abandoned in nurseries due to the prefernce for having boys as a result of the One-Child Policy, which has led to them having no legal status and a lack of opportunities for education, healthcare, etc.
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How may different groups of people be affected by pro-natalist policies?
-Parents have increased parental leave
-Children get better education due to government pension
-Children are given better food, clothes, etc. due to checks given to parents
-Women can enter the workplace
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Explain why some countries need to introduce policies for their aging population + give an example (UK & Japan)
-There may be concerns about the number of government funds available to pay state pensions, so a country might raise the retirement age to save money.
-For example, this is the reason why the UK has increased the retirement age from 65 to 66, with further increases to 67 and 68 planned for the future.
-There may be a lack of care workers for the large proportion of elderly people, requiring a change in policy.
-In Japan, robots called "carebots" have been introduced to take care of and comfort elderly people.
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Social incentives to increase fertility rates (pro-natalist policy)
-In 2019, Hungary put in place a series of measures designed to raise the fertility rate.
-One of these was the plan to construct 21,000 day-care centers by 2022, in the hope of improving parents' access to nurseries for their children.
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Arguments for and against the statement that governments in HICs are more successful at enforcing population policies than governments in LIC
-HICs have a greater capability of offering financial incentives than LICs. LICs that struggle with high infertility rates often find it difficult to introduce strategies such as family planning due to a lack of funding or the necessity to change cultural norms.
-Generally, though, HICs have not been successful in achieving their desired outcomes of increased fertility rates. South Korea's financial incentives, for instance, have not enticed people to have children.
-Some LICs have been successful at reducing fertility rates via population policies, but instead through policies that provide equal access to education for girls.
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What does the DTM show?
How a country's population changes over time as it develops economically.
