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BIology > infection and response > Flashcards

infection and response Flashcards

1
Q

describe what a communicable disease is

A

a disease that is spread from person to person

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2
Q

example of a communicable disease

A

measles

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3
Q

communicable diseases are spread by pathogens:

A

bacteria or viruses

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4
Q

example of non communicable disease

A

coronary heart disease

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5
Q

define health

A

the state of mental and physical wellbeing

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6
Q

what else, other than disease, can ill health be caused by x3

A

stress
poor diet
other life situations eg working with harmful chemicals.

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7
Q

what is tb

A

a communicable lung disease, could be fatal

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8
Q

example of a condition that causes a defective immune system

A

HIV

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8
Q

what does hiv cause

A

causes a defective immune system

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9
Q

example of diseases trigered by the immune system x2

A

athma / dermatisis

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10
Q

what happens when the immune system triggers a disease

A

the immune system fights of the pathogen but the person is left with an allergy

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11
Q

name a physical illness that can lead to a mental one

A

arthiritis can lead to depression

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12
Q

define pathogen

A

a microorganism that cause infectious disease

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13
Q

how do bacteria make us ill (3 points)
r
r
d

A

reproduce rapidly in human body
release harmful toxins
these damage tissue.
making us feel ill

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14
Q

can viruses reproduce by themselves

A

no, only in a host cell

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15
Q

can bacteria reproduce by themselves

A

yes

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16
Q

how do viruses make us ill
3 points
i
r
d

A

virus invades host cell
reproduces in host cell
causing cell damage
eg( when leaving cell, can cause cell to burst and die)

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17
Q

3 ways pathogens are spread

A

in air
in water
direct contact

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18
Q

pathogen spread in air

A

influenza

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19
Q

pathogen spread in water

A

cholera- water polluted by sewage

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20
Q

pathogen spread by direct contact

A

HIV- druggies share infected needles + sexual contact

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21
Q

how to prevent spread of pathogen x5

A

basic hygeine
clean drinking water- contains chlorine in uk
reduce direct contact
isolation if infectious
vaccination

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22
Q

!!!!can viruses be killed by antibiotics. Why / why not

A

no

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23
Q

symptoms of measles x2

A

fever
red skin

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24
Q

how is the measle virus spread

A

The measles virus is spread by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and
coughs.

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25
Q

is measles serious disease. yes/ no/ why

A

Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise.
can damage breathing system and brain

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26
Q

precaution to prevent the spread of measles

A

children vaccinated when young

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27
Q

symptom of HIV

A

flu like illness

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28
Q

how does hiv cause illness

A

virus attacks cells of immune system
damages immune system
person cant fight off any infections or cancers

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29
Q

describe late stage HIV

A

Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body’s immune system
becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other infections
or cancers

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30
Q

how can people with hiv be treated
(remember how hiv is spread+ iv)

A

with antiretroviral drugs

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31
Q

what do antiretroviral drugs do

A

stop virus multiplying
so immune system isnt damaged

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32
Q

are antiretroviral drugs a cure for HIV/ AIDS

A

no, must take them their whole life

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33
Q

how can HIV be spread

A

unprotected sex
share infected needles

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34
Q

example of viral disease x2

A

HIV
AIDS

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35
Q

can bacteria be killed by antibiotics

A

yes

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36
Q

how is salmonella food poisoning spread

A

spread by bacteria ingested in food
on food prepared in unhygienic conditions

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37
Q

what are symptoms of salmonella caused by

A

caused by the bacteria and the
toxins they secrete.

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38
Q

symptoms of salmonella x5
vfacd

A

Fever,
abdominal
cramps,
vomiting
diarrhoea

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39
Q

how is the spread of salmonella controled in uk

A

In the UK, poultry are
vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread.

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40
Q

ghonorrea is a bacterial disease + an example of a …

A

STD
sexually transmitted disease

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41
Q

symptoms of gonorrhea

A

thick yellow or green discharge
from the vagina or penis

pain on urinating.

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42
Q

how was gonnorrhea treated in the past. Why not now?

A

was easily treated with the
antibiotic penicillin
until many resistant strains appeared

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43
Q

how to stop spread of gonorrhea

A

use barrier method
eg condom
treatment with antibiotics
eg people who have unprotected sex

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44
Q

is malaria communicable

A

yes

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45
Q

the malaria pathogen is an example of a ……

A

protist

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46
Q

symptom of malaria

A

repeated bouts of fever

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47
Q

describe life cycle of malaria
4 points

A

infected person bitten by mosquito

malaria pathogen passes into mosquito

bites someone else

passes malaria pathogen to them

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48
Q

mosquitoes are vectors. Why

A

carries pathogen from one person to another

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49
Q

how to stop spread of malaria

A

use mosquito nets
stop mosquitoes breeding
( drain still water as that’s where they breed)

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50
Q

2 main defence systems against pathogens

A

non specific defense system
immune system

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51
Q

job of non specific immune system

A

prevent pathogen entering the body

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52
Q

4 parts of non specific defence system

A

skin
nose
trachea and bronchi
stomach

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53
Q

how does skin defend against pathogens x4

A

forms a protective layer

outer layer- dead cells - pathogens struggle to penetrate

sebum kills bacteria

skin scabs over

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54
Q

how does nose defend against pathogens

A

contains hair and mucus
trap pathogens before they enter breathing system

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55
Q

how do the trachea and bronchi defend against pathogens

A

covered with tiny hair, Cillia

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56
Q

describe how pathogens go from bronchi/ trachea to stomach

A

mucus on cillia trap pathogens
cillia waft mucus up throat
which is swallowed into the stomach

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57
Q

how does stomach defend against pathogens

A

contains hydrochloric acid
which kills pathogens

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58
Q

2 main functions of immune system

A

destroy pathogens and toxins produced
protect from the same pathogen in future

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59
Q

what do white blood cells do

A

ingest and destroy pathogen

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60
Q

steps describing how WB cells destroy pathogen through phagocytosis

A

detect chemicals released by pathogen
move to it
ingests pathogen
wb cell uses enzymes to destroy pathogen

61
Q

what are antibodies

A

protien molecules produced by white blood cells

62
Q

how do antibodies destroy pathogens
3 points

A

antibodies are produced by lymphocytes
they target and help destroy specific pathogens
by binding to antigens on the pathogens surface

(the pathogens now start to clump together
making it easier for white blood cells to find them and destroy them)

63
Q

what happens if your reinfected
3 points

A

if your re infected…
the antibodies are produced at a faster rate
the person wont feel symptoms
said to be immune

64
Q

what do antitoxins do to defend against pathogens

A

they neutralise the toxins released by pathogens by binding to the toxins

65
Q

what is TMV

A

tobacco mosaic virus is a widespread plant pathogen

66
Q

example of plants tmv affects

A

many species eg tomatoes

67
Q

what does tmv cause on leaves

A

leaves get distinctive mosaic pattern of discolouration

68
Q

what does the discolouration from tmv cause

A

rate of photosynthesis reduced
and so plant growth rate reduced

69
Q

2 infectious diseases in plants

A

rose black spot
tmv

70
Q

what is rose black spot

A

a fungal disease in plants

71
Q

rose black spot causes what on leaves

A

purple or black spots on leaves
turn yellow
or drop off early

72
Q

what does the spots from rose black spot cause

A

reduction in photosynyhesis
reduces growth

73
Q

how is rose black spot ( a fungal disease) spread

A

by water or wind

74
Q

how to treat rose black spot

A

spray with fungicides (kill fungi)
remove and destroy infected leaves

75
Q

what does vaccination involve

A

introducing small quantities of dead/ inactive forms of pathogen in to body

76
Q

what does the small inactive pathogen in a vaccination cause

A

stimulates the white blood cells
to produce antibodies

77
Q

what does the white blood cell do to prevent infection in the future
describe how this helps to prevent infection

A

wbc divides by mitosis
produces copies of itself
copies stay in body for years
if reinfected, wbc can produce correct antibodies quickly
preventing infection

78
Q

what is herd immunity

A

if a large population is vaccinated, the disease is less likely to spread
even if there are some unvaccinated people

79
Q

how does herd immunity protect unvaccinated people

A

the unvaccinated person cannot catch the disease because no one around them can pass the pathogen on

80
Q

what are the two main types of white blood cells

A

lymphocytes
phagocytes

81
Q

2 ways phagocytes fight pathogens

A

antitoxins
antibodies

82
Q

describe vaccination in three steps

A

injecting a small quantity of dead/ inactive form of pathogen into body
lymphocytes stimulated to produce correct antibodies for the pathogen
if pathogen re-enters, correct antibodies produced quickly to prevent infection

83
Q

first antibiotic discovered

A

penicillin

84
Q

what do antibiotics do

A

cure bacterial disease by killing infective bacteria inside
the body

85
Q

do antibiotics harm body cells

A

no

86
Q

specific bacteria must be treated with …… ……

A

. It is important that specific bacteria should be
treated by specific antibiotics.

87
Q

antibiotics have been overused. what has this caused

A

antibiotic resistance
certain antibiotics no longer effective against certain bacteria

88
Q

what is antibiotic resistance

A

bacteria evolve, not killed by antibiotic

89
Q

can antibiotics kill viruses

A

no

90
Q

what do painkillers do

A

treat the symptoms of disease but do not kill pathogens.

91
Q

why is it hard to create drugs that kill viruses
2 points

A

viruses live and reproduce inside human cells
It is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also
damaging the body’s tissues.

92
Q

name a drug extracted from a plant
name the plant also

A

Heart drug, digitallis,
extracted from Foxglove

93
Q

name a painkiller extracted from tree
name the tree

A

painkiller aspirin
extracted from willow tree

94
Q

penicillin was discovered by……

A

alexander fleming

95
Q

how was penicillin discovered

A

from the penicillium mould

96
Q

how are most new drugs made

A

synthesised by chemists in the pharmeceutical industry

97
Q

what is the starting point for most drugs

A

a chemical extracted from a plant

98
Q

three things new drugs are tested for

A

toxicity - is it harmful
efficacy- does it work
dosage- what amount is safe and effective to give

99
Q

what must be done to new drugs before being used

A

New drugs to be tested and trialled before use to
check they are safe and effective.

100
Q

1st stage of testing

A

preclinical testing

101
Q

what is preclinical testing

A

testing carried out on
cells
tissues
live animals

102
Q

what happens after pre clinical trials

A

clinical trials

103
Q

what happens in clinical trials
2 steps

A

-super low doses to healthy volunteers -
check if drug i safe + effective

  • if safe further clinical trials carried out to find the optimum dose
    more volunteers
104
Q

what is an optimum dose

A

best dose to treat disease with fewest side effects

105
Q

what is a double blind trial.

A

patient and doctor don’t know who has real drug and who has
placebo

106
Q

why are double blind trials used

A

reduces bias in the trial
in case doctor pay more attention to ppl receiving active drug

107
Q

what is a placebo

A

tablet/ injection with no active drug in it

108
Q

some people get better after a placebo . why

A

they think they are being treated
they believe they are going to get better

109
Q

what happens after clinical trials

A

peer review

110
Q

what happens in peer review

A

before publishing results
results of clinical trial tested and checked
by INDEPENDENT researchers

111
Q

three stages of clinical trials

A

Pre-clinical
clinical
peer review

112
Q

what does the graph for vaccination
( time on X axis and concentration of antibodies in blood on Y axis ) look like

A

before vaccination
0 antibodies

when vaccinated
amount antibodies rise and then fall but more then 0

when infected
The amount of antibodies spikes very high

then begins to decrease again

113
Q

what do lymphocytes produce antibodies against

A

anything the body detects as foreign ( antigens)

114
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies made

A

They are produced by stimulating mouse lymphocytes to make a particular antibody

115
Q

2 ways antibodies are used

A

pregnancy testing kits
certain cancer treatments

116
Q

steps of producing monoclonal antibody
6 steps

A

1) inject mouse with antigen
lymphocytes will produce antibodies against the antigen

2) collect lymphocytes from the mouse
lymphocytes dont divide by mitosis

3)fuse lymphocytes with tumour cells (very good at dividing by mitosis) = hybridoma
-they can produce antibodies and divide by mitosis

4) select a hybridoma cell that produces the antibodies you want

5) Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many identical cells that all produce the same
antibody.

6) A large amount of the antibody can be collected and purified for use

117
Q

fill in the gaps
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by stimulating mouse …………. to make a
particular …….
The lymphocytes are combined with a ………. cell to make a …….. cell.
This cell (………) can both …… and make the …….. Single ……….. cells are cloned to produce many …….. cells that all produce the same…….
A large amount of the antibody can be ……. and …….

A

monoclonal antibodies are produced by stimulating mouse LYMPHOCYTES to make a
particular ANTIBODY.
The lymphocytes are combined with a TUMOUR cell to make a cell called a HYBRIDOMA cell.
This cell (HYBRIDOMA) can both DIVIDE and make the ANTIBODY.
Single HYBRIDOMA cells
are cloned to produce many IDENTICAL cells that all produce the same ANTIBODY.
A large amount of the antibody can be COLLECTED and PURIFIED

118
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies made from

A

a single clone of hybridoma cella

119
Q

monoclonal antibodies are specific to a single binding site on a specific protein antigen. What does this mean

A

they can be used to target specific chemicals or cells

120
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy testing

A

to detect HCG which is produced by pregnant women and found in their urine

(HCG is produced by the placenta of the developing fetus)

121
Q

pros of pregnancy tests w/ monoclonal antibodies

A

cheap
easy to use
highly accurate
(if correctly used)

122
Q

4 uses of monoclonal antibodies

A
  • DIAGNOSIS eg in pregnancy tests
  • LABORATORIES -
    measure level of hormones/ chemicals in blood + detect pathogens
    *RESEARCH to locate / identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue
    *TREAT DISEASES - eg cancer
123
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used in labs

A

-measure hormone level in blood
(tired/ lack energy- may have certain low hormones)
- detect pathogens in blood

124
Q

what is an advantage of monoclonal antibody’s being used in labs to locate/ measure hormones or pathogens

A

they are completely specific to what you are looking for

125
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used:
to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue

A

monoclonal antibody attatched to fluorecsent dye
they bind to specific molecules
we can see where these are

126
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used to treat specific diseases eg cancer
4 points

A

(cancer cells undergo uncontrolled mitosis)
- antibodies made specific to cancer cells
- radioactive substance/ drug attached to antibody
- antibody attaches to cancer cells
- the radioactive substance or toxic drug stops cancer cell from dividing

127
Q

pros of using monoclonal antibodies for treating diseases

A

antibody delivers substance directly to cell
without harming other cells

128
Q

problem with monoclonal antibodies

A

create more side effects than expected and so not widely used

129
Q

name a viral plant disease

A

tmv

130
Q

name a fungal plant disease

A

rose black spot

131
Q

aphids can attack plants. What do aphids do

A

aphids extract nutrients (eg sugar) from plant, stunting growth.

132
Q

do insects count as pathogens. Why

A

no, as they dont cause an infectious disease

133
Q

7 ways Plant diseases can be detected

A
  • stunted growth
  • spots on leaves
  • areas of decay (rot)
  • growths
  • malformed stems or leaves
  • discolouration
  • the presence of pests.
134
Q

3 ways to identify plant disease

A
  • gardening manual or website
  • take infected plants to laboratory to identify the pathogen
  • use testing kits that contains monoclonal antibodies.
135
Q

2 plant ion deficiency diseases

A

lack of nitrate ion
lack of magnesium ion

136
Q

what does a lack of nitrate ion in plants cause

A

stunted growth

137
Q

what does a lack of nitrate ion in plants cause

A

stunted growth

138
Q

why does a lack of nitrate ion cause stunted plant growth

A

because nitrate is needed for protein synthesis and therefore growth

139
Q

what does a lack of magnesium ion in plants cause

A

causes condition chlorosis - leaves lose green colour

140
Q

why does a lack of magnesium ions cause chlorosis

A

because magnesium is needed to make chlorophyll

141
Q

plants physical responses against attack x3

A
  • Cellulose cell walls.
  • Tough waxy cuticle on leaves.
  • Layers of dead cells around stems (bark on trees) which fall off
142
Q

plants chemical responses against attack x2

A

Chemical plant defence responses.
* Antibacterial chemicals.
* Poisons to deter herbivores.

143
Q

plants mechanical adaptations.

A
  • Thorns and hairs deter animals.
  • Leaves which droop or curl when touched.
  • Mimicry to trick animals.
144
Q

how does the cellulose cell wall defend against attack

A

difficult for microorganisms to penetrate

145
Q

how does the waxy cuticle (thin oily layer) defend against attack

A

difficult for microorganisms to penetrate- defends against attack

146
Q

how does the bark defend against attack

A

bark is a barrier to entry for microorganisms

147
Q

how does antibacterial chemicals defend against attack

A

kill bacteria and prevent them from entering the plant

148
Q

how does poisons defend against attack

A

deter herbivores from grazing on the plant

149
Q

how does the thorns/ hairs defend against attack

A

stop it being eaten
irritating/ difficult to eat

150
Q

how do leaves that curl when touched defend against attack

A

scare herbivores

151
Q

how does plants mimicry defend against attack
give example.

A

tricks animals
eg dead white nettle has no sting
looks like a stinging nettle

BIology (11 decks)

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