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bio 130 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Define Phenotype

A

Physical expression of genes

Dominate and Recessive versions

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2
Q

Define Genotype

A

Genes present in an individual

Alleles of a gene (AA, Aa, aa)

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3
Q

Define
- Homozygous Dominate
- Homozygous Recessive
- Heteozygous

A
  • Homozygous Dominate: AA
  • Homozygous Recessive: aa
  • Heteozygous: Aa
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4
Q

Who is Gregor Mendel? What did he discover?

A

Father of genetics
Established fundamental laws of heredity

Came up the concept of alleles: different versions of genes
An organism has two verions of every gene one from each parent creating: AA, Aa, or aa

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5
Q

Define the Law of Segregation

A

During gamete production (egg/sperm) when the alleles are copied the are separated so that a parent can only give one allele.

Instead of mom giving Aa she only gives a

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6
Q

Define the Law of Independent assortment

A

Alleles are copied independently

Copying an A from Aa does change the likely hood of getting another A or getting an a instead the next time

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7
Q

Define Linked Genes

A

Genes close together on a chromosome so the are more likely to inherited together instead of being seperated

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8
Q

Define Dominate gene

A

Strong Phenotype: Will be expressed more

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9
Q

Define Recessive gene

A

Weak phenotype: Easily masked or hidden

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10
Q

Define Co-dominance

A

Both the phenotypes of the alleles express themselves creating stark contrasts
Example: A red flower and a white flower creating a red and white flower

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11
Q

Define incomplete dominance

A

Phenotypes get mixed like paint
Example: A red flower and a white flower creating a pink flower

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12
Q

Define Law of Heredity

A

Unchanging Hereditary elements undergo segregation and independent assortment.

Elements are passed on unchanged to offspring leading to finite number of variations

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13
Q

Define Dihybrid cross

A

Crossing two homologous parents and tracking 2 geneotypes

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14
Q

Cell Cycle: what are 4 phases?

A
  1. Mitosis: Cell splitting
  2. Growth 1: Normal growth of organelles and such
  3. Synthesis: DNA replication
  4. Growth 2: Growth for division
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15
Q

Mitosis: what are the 5 phases?

A

Prophase: Single chromosomes copy making sister chromotids then they attach themselves with centromeres in the middle which create the x looking chromosome.
Spindle fibers/Mitotic spindle form
Nuclear membrane dissolves

Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
Spindle attaches to the centromere

Anaphase: The sister chromotids of the chromosomes are split apart and retracted to the end of the cell (like spider-man webbing)

Telophase: two Nuclear Membrane form around the new groups of DNA

Cytokinesis: Cell begins to divide itself

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16
Q

Define Non-disjuntion Events

A

DNA fails to separate properly

Often Issues during Anaphase I or II because the spindle could attach improperly missing a chromosome for one side and grabbing an extra on the other side

Examples
- Patau Syndrome: Trisomy (extra 13th chromosomes)
- Edward Syndrome: Trisomy (extra 18th chromosome)
- Down syndrome: Trisomy (extra 21st chromosome
- Klinefelter syndrome: Momosomy (extra x chromosome in males)
- Turner syndrome: Momosomy (missing X chromosome in females)
- Triple x: Extra x for females
- XYY: an extra Y in males

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17
Q

Define Meiosis

A

Special type of Mitosis for gamete cells (egg and sperm cells)

Duplication of the chromosomes before division starts and goes through the two rounds of cell divison (Meiosis 1 and 2)

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18
Q

Main Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

A

Metaphase and Anaphase

Meiosis will serparate chromosomes and then chromatids

Mitosis starts will seperating the chromotids

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19
Q

Define crossing over

A

Homologous chromosomes pair up and can swap/exechane genetic info with each other

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20
Q

Define Ploidy

A

Number of chromosome SETS in a cell

triploid cell has 3 chromosomes for each type/nmber

Diploid cell has 2 chromosomes for each type/number

Haploid cell has 1 chromosome for each type/number

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21
Q

Ploidy descriptions: with n count

A

NumberOfCopies * number of unqiue chromosomes = total number of chromosomes

Example:
People are 2n = 46: 2 copies of 23 unique types creating 46 total chromosomes

4n = 12: 4 copies of 3 unique types creating 12 total chromosomes

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22
Q

Facts about Spermatogenesis

A

Happens in testicles or testes

Collected in epididymis then transported to the body using various tubes

Other glands join

100-200 million sperm are made by one man in a single day

64 days to mature sperm

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23
Q

Facts about Ovulation/Oogenesis

A

Oogonium cells: Diploid cells that make eggs, preform all the mitosis they will ever before long before the female was ever born

They are arrested/stuck in prophase 1 until puberty

Once a month one is chosen to finish meiosis 1 then stops and waits to be fertilized in order to move forward onto meiosis 2

While waiting at the end of meiosis 1 2 cells are waiting: Polar body and a full egg cell with all organelles

Progesterone is produced to keep the uterine from shedding

If egg is fertilized it moves on to meiosis 2
If not the progesterone hormone drops and lining is shed (Period)

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24
Q

How do miscarriages work?

A

Most miscarriages are Polar bodies getting fertilized instead of the egg. Since the polar body has no organelles it can’t function or live, but creates all the hormones associated with pregnancy

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25
Q

Define Asexual reproduction

A

Offspring can arise from a single oranges and inherit the genes of that parent only

No fusion of gametes

Almost never changes number of chromosomes

Example: Most bacteria and single celled organisms

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26
Q

Define Fragmentation

A

Type of Asexual reproduction

Cloning where an organism splits into fragments and then each fragment develops into mature fully grown individuals that are clones

Ex: sear stars, molds, Cyanobacteria, lichen

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27
Q

Define budding

A

Type of Asexual reproduction

A new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particualr site.

The new organism remains attached as it grows seperating from the parent organism only when it is mature, leaving behind scar tissue

Examples: Corals, flatworms, some sea sponges

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28
Q

Define Binary Fission

A

Type of Asexual reproduction

For prokaryotic cells

DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously: DNA molecule divides and forms two seperate DNA molecules (no centromere)

DNA is moved to opposite end of the cell

Cell divides

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29
Q

Define Parthenogenesis

A

Offspring develop from unfertilized eggs

Ex: anthropods, notifiers, fish, amphibians, birds, reptiles

(Note: these all lay eggs, mammals can’t do parthenogenesis)

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30
Q

How are our genetypes expressed into phenotypes?

A

Protein creation!
Proteins are created from DNA and RNA

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31
Q

What is the Central Dogma of Molecular biology for genes?

A

DNA is transcibed into RNA
RNA translates and makes proteins/polpeptide chains

DNA -> RNA -> Protein

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32
Q

What is the general form/shape of DNA

A

Double Helix

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33
Q

What is the basic unit/monomer of DNA? What types exist?

A

Nucleotides: 4 types
Adenine
Cytosine
Guanine
Thymine

Uracil is a pryimidine similar to Thymine and is RNA’s replacement/version

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34
Q

What 3 molecules make up a nucleotide?

A

A Phosphase residue
A sugar (deoxyribose)
A nitrogenous base: adenine, guanine, etc.

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35
Q

What are anti-paralell strands of DNA?

A

DNA strands that are opposites of each-other in such a way that bringing opposite strands together fit together forming a double strand which then twists into a double helix shape

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36
Q

How do nucleotides pair up?

A

A-T or U for RNA

G-C

Each pair contains one purine and one pyrimidine

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37
Q

How does DNA replicate?

A

One strand known as the template strand is read and an anti-paralell strand that fits is built

This creates a copy of the coding strand, since the coding strand runs anti-paralell to the template strand too

38
Q

What direstion is DNA built? What direction is DNA read?

A

Read 3’ to 5’

Built 5’ to 3’

39
Q

Define DNA

A

The genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents

40
Q

Define Chromatin

A

Combination of DNA and proteins that constitute chromosomes

Uncondensed phase of a chromosome

41
Q

Define Chromosomes

A

A strand of DNA and it’s associated proteins

Condensed structures visible during cell division

42
Q

Where is DNA kept in a cell

A

Nucleus

43
Q

Which nucleotides are the Purines?

A

Adenine
Guanine

44
Q

Which nucletides are the Pyrimidines?

A

Cytosine
Thymine
Uracil

45
Q

What is the shape of RNA?

A

Single stand of Nucleotides
Looks like half of a DNA strand

46
Q

What does 3’ and 5’ mean?

A

3 or 5 refer to wich carbon of the sugar portion of the nucleotide is sticking out on the end

47
Q

How do nucleotides bond together

A

Hydrogen bonds: Between nucleotides

Covalent bonds between phosphate and sugars in backbone

48
Q

Difference between template strand and coding strand

A

Coding: DNA strand that has all the nucleotide sequences for protein building

Template is opposite so that the RNA polymerase will read it and end up creating a complementary/inverse of the template strand which is equal to the coding strand which is what we want

49
Q

Types of RNA

A

Messenger mRNA: Conveys the genetic information from DNA to ribosome. Holds all the code for amino acids

Transfer tRNA: Serves as physical link between mRNA and the amino acid sequence of proteins

Ribosomal rRNA: RNA component of the ribosome, part of the predominatn material within ribosome

50
Q

What is the promoter sequence?

A

Tells RNA polymerase to start in that location and start transcribing.

TATA box = TATAAA: This encoding is found on the coding strand

51
Q

Define Intron

A

Non-coding regions
Thrown out during mRNA processing

52
Q

Define Exons

A

Coding regions

Kept and bond together

53
Q

Define splieosome

A

Enzyme that cuts up the mRNA after translation that the introns can be removed and tossed out

54
Q

What must go on the begining and end of the mRNA strand after processing and before heading to the ribosome?

A

5’ cap and the Poly A-tail

55
Q

What are the 3 sites of the Ribosome?

A

A-site: Arrival site where initial amino acid comes in (AUG - Met)

P-site: Polypeptide site where bonds between amino acids are created to start the polypeptide chain (Which eventually turns into a protein)

E-site: Exit site where amino acids break off from the ribosome and tRNA

56
Q

How do anticodons and tRNA work?

A

tRNA is a strand of RNA that is folded up a bunch like knotted spaghetti that carries an amino acid

The Anti-codon is portion one the tRNA that sticks out or is exposed. It’s 3 nucleotides long

The tRNA checks if it’s anti-codone (3 exposed nucleotides) match the current 3 sequence of the mRNA that is coming through the arrival site. If yes we can move on to processing and connection to the poy peptide chain

57
Q

How is the Ribosome structured?

A

Large subunit on top with the 3 sites

Underneath that is the small subunit

mRNA is designed to be sandwiched in the middle

58
Q

4 strucutures of protein building

A

Primary structure: chain of amino acids

Secondary: Alpha helix (spring, slinky)
Beta-pleat (zig zag)

Teritary structure: 3D Blob shapes

Quanternary: More than 1 teritary all stuck together

59
Q

How does Protein folding occur?

A

The + and - charges on different parts makes the proteins bend in a specific way like magnets repeling and attracting

60
Q

Define peptide bonds

A

When an amino acid group bonds to the carboxyl group of another amino acid

61
Q

Left and Right hand orientation

A

Amino acids inverse and mirror each other the way our left and hands do.

Caused by bonding angles of carbon

62
Q

How do doctors use the left and right hand orientation?

A

Half will work and half willl not becasue of the orientation.

Base dosage on this and prescribe twice as much

63
Q

Define secretory pathway

A

After the Rough ER with ribosomes → proteins exit in a vesicle → travel through the Golgi apparatus → enter a secretory vesicle that fuses with cell membrane → secrets/ejects protein from the cell

64
Q

Three theories of DNA Replication

A
  1. Semi-conservative: copies have 1 parent strand and 1 copy strand interwoven
    1. One stand of original is mixed with one copy strand
    2. Complimentary strands are built together
  2. Conservative: copy is entirely separate from parent
    1. Original strand stays together
    2. Copy strand stays together
  3. Dispersive: sections along parent and copy are interwoven
65
Q

Which theory is correct about DNA replication

A

Semi-conservative: copies have 1 parent strand and 1 copy strand interwoven

66
Q

What was involved during Medellin and Stahl’s experiemtn in 1958 about DNA replication

A
  • Grew bacteria with heavier nitrogen isotope
  • Compared with regular growth with lighter nitrogen
  • Trial 1: DNA weight was all the same → Debunks the conservative theory because that expectation would be 2 DNA lines
  • Trial 2: DNA weight was different (Debunks the Dispersive theory?)

📌 DNA is replicated by Semiconservative model

67
Q

What is required in DNA replication

A

Topoisomerace: unwinds the DNA

Helicase: cut strand

Single Strand Binding Proteins SSBP: to keep the split DNA apart

RNA primer: give starting position of where to replicate

DNA polymerase: Makes the copy DNA strand and follows the helicase closely

DNA ligase: Mostly for the laggin strand becase it has to build the opposite direction to so it makes small fragments moving away from the helicase and then the ligase glues the pieces together (Okazaki)

68
Q

Types of DNA point mutations

A
  • Silent: do nothing produce same amino acid
  • Missense: alter one amino acid
  • Nonsense: create a stop codon too early
69
Q

Types of DNA frame shift mutations

A
  • Insertion: 1+ amino acid(s) is/are added changing all the codon codes after
  • Deletion: 1+ amino acid(s) is/are removed changing all the codon codes after
70
Q

How are mutations caused

A

Causes: UV rays, x-rays, extreme heat, chemicals, environmental exposures, mutagens associated with cancer, spontaneous errors during replication

71
Q

What industries/areas and what people use Biotechnology?

A
  1. GMO’s
  2. Antibiotics
  3. DNA sequencing and manipulation
  4. Gene therapy / gene editing
  5. Breeding therapies
  6. Pretty much any food

Who uses BioTech
- Doctors
- Criminal investigators
- Farmers
- Government → Passing laws, investigation
- Anyone who eats
- Scientists
- Bioinformatics

72
Q

Define Polymerase Chain reaction (PCR)

A

Discovered by Dr. Kary Mullis
In vitro (in a test tube) DNA replication

73
Q

What is required for PCR?

A

Heat
Thermostable DNA polymerase (TAQ)
Excess primers
Nucleotides
DNA template

74
Q

PCR: What does Heat replace

A
  1. Helicase
  2. Topoisomerase
  3. Ligase
  4. SSBP - Single Strand Binding Proteins
75
Q

PCR: What does TAQ replace

A

DNA polymerase

TAQ can withstand the massive amount of heat that replaces helicase

76
Q

PCR: What do the excess promers replace?

A

Primase and RNA primers

Primase builds primers, if they’re pre-created don’t need the builder

77
Q

PCR: What are the 3 steps?

A

Denaturing: heating

Annealing: cooling

Elongation: heating

78
Q

PCR: What can it be used for?

A
  • to detect mutation
  • to recombine
  • find out who the daddy is
  • to solve a crime
79
Q

What is Gel Electrophoresis

A

A method to seperate strands of DNA by length and find banding patterns

Takes advantage the negtive charge DNA has

Short strands will move faster towards the positive side

80
Q

Define Short tandem repeats

A
  • Unique to every person
  • Combination of mutations from mom and dad create the unique copies
  • Have special banding patterns
  • Used as aggregate markers to differentiate people
  • Length of STRs = number of copies of repeated units → As people being diploid we have 2 alleles for each STR (One allele from mom, One allele from dad)
  • CGC…CGC…CGC → CGC(3)
  • The combination of different lengths: CGC(2) vs CGC(3)
  • The add the combination of different types: CGC(2) and ATG(4) vs. CGC(2) and GGC(1)
81
Q

Define Restriction Enzymes

A

cut the DNA at these unique sites (and will cut out the exact same sections every time)

The EcoRI restriction site is the sequence G^AATTC

Example Stand: … CTAGAATTCGAT…

Cut: … CTAG-<cut>-AATTCGAT…</cut>

Fragment that we can see before cut = 4

DNA Fragments have sticky ends and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

82
Q

Could we clone dinosaurs?

A

No DNA degrades and doesn’t last long enough
1/2 life of 521 years: Half DNA gets degraded in that time span

We could clone Neanderthals

Jurassic Park: Birds have similar bone structure to dinosaurs so that kind of DNA would be better than frogs

83
Q

Gene Regulation

A

Turning DNA on and off
Editing Genetics

84
Q

How do you turn ON genes? (Express them)

A

Acetylation/Acetylated

remove proteins to unwind
add an acetyl group to the histones to keep the DNA unwrapped

Could use transcription factors to the genes to act as markers that say turn on

85
Q

How do you turn OFF genes? (stop them)

A

Methylation

wrap DNA around a protein
Add methyl groups to the backbone of DNA
(Like adding tape to a present so you can’t see what it is)

86
Q

Define Epigenetic’s

A

Anything that acts on our gene expression (hormones, protein changes, etc.)

87
Q

3 basic ways to edit genes

A

Delete DNA
Replace DNA
Insert DNA

Manipulating genetics of living organisms is usually done for improving crops and farms animals or correcting a genetic disorder

88
Q

Superhero example of epigenetic

A

Captain America: Turning specific genes on and off for a result, Vita-rays releases molcules to change tissue

Spider-man: Retro virus, need to enter every cell in the body, a lot harder (edits cell host genomes)

89
Q

Define CRISPR

A

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats = CRISPR

Bacterial replacement for an immune system. Defense mechanism against viruses entering a single-cell bacteria and killing it.

CRISPR cuts up foreign DNA
Can cut out sections of DNA and replace them

90
Q

Potential uses for CRISPR

A
  • Can be used to translate information: translate 1’s and 0’s into A-T and G-C insert the DNA into an organism → Extract the DNA → Retranslate into 1’s and 0’s
  • Could be used to instantly change eye-color, hair color
  • Remove genetic diseases
    • Mitochondria have their own DNA (mtDNA or mitochondrial DNA) → Will always come from our mom’s → What about mitochondria defects and diseases → DNA from 3 parents article
  • Cloning
91
Q

What are some areas of BIOTech

A
  • Therapeutics → Personalized medicine
  • Diagnostics → Test for health statuses and diseases
  • Agriculture → Crops, livestock, plant-based fuel, new energy sources
  • GMO’s → Insert desirable genes into hose genome
    • Main concerns: Allergies, cancer, environment impact
  • Bio-remediation → Use organisms to help us, ex: clean up oil spills
  • Materials → New chemicals, new materials, nanotechnology
  • Bio-industry suppliers → Supplying industries with better equipment and services
  • Bio-informatics → Addressing biological problems with computers

bio 130 (5 decks)

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