Research logic and research design

Question 1

Two types of research

Answer 1

1. Normative
2. Positive
   The two inform themselves, you can do positive research and then do normative research to find what works better.

Question 2

Normative research

Answer 2

How the world should be, value judgements, ethics, requires application of philosophy rather than data. The aim is prescriptive.

Question 3

Positive research

Answer 3

What is/was/will be, deals with empirical phenomena and theoretical concepts and the links between them, avoiding biased judgements, capable of research through data collection. Aim is to avoid biased judgements.

Question 4

Two types of positive research

Answer 4

1. Theoretical: Theory elaboration, conceptualisations, using logical deductive reasoning to develop truth statements (analytical).
2. Empirical: Theory generating, testing/application and conceptualisation. Truth statements result from a confrontation between theory and empirical content (synthetic).

Question 5

Three types of empirical research

Answer 5

1. Descriptive
2. Predictive
3. Explanatory

Question 6

Descriptive research

Answer 6

Describing what’s going on. Collection of relevant facts that can be used as evidence in theory building or concept formation. Can lead to a “light bulb” moment. This light bulb moment (patterns) can inform explanatory research. Case centred.

Question 7

Predictive research

Answer 7

Predictions about the future through identifying future patterns. Oriented towards elections. Not focused on in the course.

Question 8

Explanatory research

Answer 8

Explaining why or how is it going on. Can focus on causes of events, causal effects or causal mechanisms.
- Why questions about causal effects
- How questions about causal mechanisms
Explanatory and descriptive research are not exclusionary, they are often combined within one study at different stages.
Can inform descriptive research when more information is needed.

Question 9

What is research design?

Answer 9

1. A logical plan for getting from the research question to the answer.
2. Not just about how you do the research, but also why and what the purpose of doing this is.
3. Answers the question of how are you going to conduct the research

Question 10

How to choose a good research design?

Answer 10

1. Make decisions based on the theory out there
2. In explanatory research, you have to think about the variation you want to explain
3. The level of analysis
4. The type of data you have to collect to answer your research question
5. If there’s a probabilistic or deterministic causational perspective
6. Think about the choice of methods

Question 11

Theory testing

Answer 11

When there is research you can build on
1. Start with describing/analysing the theory.
2. Hypotheses/propositions
3. Measurement/sampling etc.
4. Data collection
5. Data analysis
6. Either the data analysis makes it so there’s implications for the hypothesis, so you confirm/reject the theory. When you reject the theory, a new theory is needed.
Deductive (when theory testing and theory building, abductive)

Question 12

Theory building

Answer 12

When there is not much or no theory to build on.
1. Start with data collection
2. Data analysis
3. Implications for hypothesis or new theory
4. When implications for hypothesis, it results in a theory
5. When new theory is needed, a new hypothesis is needed and then you go through the process of measurement, data collection, data analysis and implications for hypothesis again and making a hypothesis in the end.
Inductive (when theory testing and theory building, abductive)

Question 13

Variation

Answer 13

Which variation in X or Y do we want to explain?
1. In empirical explanatory research
2. The variation we are interested in are patterns, similarties and differences.
3. Explanations can focus on causal factors, causal effects or causal mechanisms.

Question 14

Types of variation

Answer 14

1. X-centred studies focus on a cause and asks whether it has an effect on a given outcome (causal factors). It looks for the contribution of X in explaining part of the variation in Y.
2. Y-centred studies focus on the outcome and seeks to find out the relevant causes (causal effect). Explaining the variation in Y as best as you can.
3. Mechanism-centred studies focus on tracing a causal mechanism or a causal process. Uncovering the sequence of intervening factors that link an X to a Y.

Question 15

What is a case?

Answer 15

1. A unit of analysis in which we measure variation.
2. Representation of some sort of population.
3. Empirical phenomenon that is an example of a population.
4. It has boundaries, is spatial, temporal and substantive, based on this we can tell what the population is.
5. When generalising you’re looking for causal homogeneity, meaning causal effects and mechanisms are expected to hold true for other cases in the population

Question 16

What is a case study?

Answer 16

An empirical analysis of a small sample.
Sample is about studied cases, population is studied and unstudied cases (what you want to generalise).

Question 17

What are units of variation?

Answer 17

In explanatory research.
Small N designs or large N designs, based on the amount of cases.

Question 18

Types of research designs

Answer 18

1. Single case, short time and short space (one case in time)
2. Comparative case study (different case studies at a specific time point)
3. Periodisation study (one case across different points in time)

Question 19

Analytical level (level of analysis)

Answer 19

On which analytical level do we observe our research targets?
1. Macro-level (societies, economies, states, etc.)
2. Meso-level (groups, territorial subunits, etc.)
3. Micro-level (individuals)

Question 20

Level of analysis

Answer 20

On which level of analysis does the argument take place.
1. Cross-case level (causal effects). All quantiative research because it is large N.
2. Within-case (causal mechanisms).

Question 21

Coleman’s bathtub

Answer 21

1. Explanatory factor (X) —> Outcome (Y).
   There is an argument for how X leads to Y: Explanatory factor X influences actors who behave in a certain way, which leads to the outcome.
   The explanatory factor and outcome are on macro-level or meso-level, the actors and behaviour on micro-level.
2. In causal effects and with more than one case, the X and Y (transformational mechanism) will be on cross-case level (situational mechanism). To understand the link between X and Y, you look at the within-case level (action-formation mechanism).

Question 22

Two perspectives towards causation

Answer 22

1. Probabilistic
2. Deterministic

Question 23

Probabilistic perspective towards causation

Answer 23

When the values of an independent variable increase or decrease, this usually results in the values of the dependent variable increasing or decreasing
Cause is a probability raiser

Question 24

Causation

Answer 24

1. A type of co-variation where one phenomenon contributes to or produces another.
2. Causal relationships are the core of explanatory research.
3. You cannot observe causation, you can work out causation from empirical observations

Question 25

Criteria for causal inference based on empirical observations

Answer 25

1. Temporal sequence (X –> Y)
2. Proximity (in time and space)
3. Constant coexistece of X and Y
4. Logical connection between X and Y
   You also need to rule out other factors that could influence the outcome.

Question 26

Deterministic perspective towards causation

Answer 26

1. When the values of an independent variable increase or decrease, this always results in the values of the dependent variable increasing or decreasing
2. Explanatory factors are necessary and/or sufficient conditions for an outcome

Question 27

Necessary condition in deterministic perspective towards causation

Answer 27

Something which must be present for something else to be possible.
Example: it is necessary to run in an election as a candidate to be able to win a seat in parliament

Question 28

Sufficient condition in deterministic perspective towards causation

Answer 28

Something which, if present, guarantees that something else will occur.
Example: holding new elections is a sufficient condition for government determination

Question 29

How to evaluate a research design

Answer 29

1. Positivist research designs should have internal and external validity. Internal meaning the structure of the design makes it to draw unambiguous conclusions from the results and external meaning that it can be generalised.
2. Interpretivist research designs should be credible, meaning the analysis is authentic and offers a believable interpretation of reality. It should also be transferable, meaning readers can assess the broader applicability of the lessons drawn from the findings.