Writing

Question 1

Describe the relationship between reading and writing development.

Answer 1

Reading and writing are interrelated and should be taught together.
Students who read a lot tend to have stronger writing skills, and
students who write a lot tend to have stronger reading comprehension
skills.

When students read varied types of texts, they learn how authors convey meaning differently through tone, language use, and sentence structure. They learn about different types of genres. They often use the texts as models and experiment with these elements in their own writing. Students also increase their vocabularies through reading, and they develop automatic recognition of high-frequency words. Students may then integrate the new vocabulary words into their own writing and remember how to spell words they have seen repeatedly in texts.

When students learn to write, they learn about and use different
sentence and text structures. Awareness of these structures can help
students recognize and make sense of them when encountered in other texts. Additionally, when students write about texts they have read, it facilitates additional analysis and comprehension. For example, writing about whether or not they would recommend books to others requires students to evaluate the texts and provide support for their reasoning.

Question 2

Describe some characteristics of writers in the preliterate stage of writing development.

Answer 2

The earliest stage of children’s writing development is scribbling.
Children begin scribbling at random places on the pages and do not
proceed in any consistent direction. They typically hold writing utensils,
such as pencils or crayons, with their fists. Scribbling helps children
improve their fine motor skills and sets the stage for the understanding
that writing carries meaning.

Over time, scribbling begins to follow a left-to-right directionality across
the pages. Drawings may be included to help convey meaning.

Eventually, strings of pretend, letter-like symbols are used. They are
sometimes mixed with numbers. Students are able to explain the
meanings they are trying to convey through their writing. This phase
demonstrates a beginning awareness of concepts of print. Spacing
between words is not initially included but develops over time. There is
no evidence of letter-sound relationships in the writing at this stage.

Question 3

Describe some characteristics of writers in the emergent stage of writing development.

Answer 3

In the emergent stage, writers begin to form letters correctly. Initially,
they often write using all capital letters. They also begin to use their
understandings of letter-sound relationships to write words. Some
sounds are correctly represented in words, typically starting with the
initial sounds.

In this stage, writers also begin spelling some words correctly. The first
written words typically hold high personal meaning to students, such as
their names and words like mom and dad. They may also write words
found in environmental print, such as the names of popular restaurants
frequently seen on signs. Some high-frequency sight words begin to be
spelled correctly.

Students in the emergent stage write with left-to-right directionality and
begin using spacing to separate words. They also begin to use common
punctuation marks to split their writing into sentences, although this
skill is still developing. Because it requires a lot of energy to encode
words at this stage, writing pieces are typically short.

Question 4

Describe some characteristics of writers in the transitional stage of writing development.

Answer 4

In the transitional stage of writing development, students begin using a
mixture of capital and lowercase letters appropriately. They also
correctly use several different punctuation marks. Their writing includes
a broader vocabulary than when they were in the emergent stage.

Transitional writers know how to automatically spell many high
frequency words, and they use multiple strategies to encode words they
do not know how to spell. These strategies include considering letter-sound relationships to record the sounds they hear, considering known
spelling patterns, and thinking of related, known words. Writing
includes a mixture of conventionally spelled words and phonetically
spelled words that are readable.

Because transitional writers are able to encode many words quickly,
they have more available energy to focus on writing development. They
focus more attention on developing story elements and including
descriptive details. They write longer texts than they wrote in the
emergent stage, and their writing includes a mixture of text structures
and genres. Transitional writers also have the ability to reread and edit
their work.

Question 5

Describe some characteristics of writers in the fluent stage of writing development.

Answer 5

Fluent writers spell most words correctly and use capitalization and
punctuation marks conventionally throughout their writing. They are
able to edit and evaluate their own writing and provide constructive
feedback to others.

With the ability to spell most words quickly and automatically, fluent
writers are able to focus more on writing craft, such as using descriptive
language and developing story elements. Author’s voice begins to
develop. Writing may span several pages. Fluent writers consider their
audiences and purposes for writing and consider them during the
planning process. They use multiple strategies to plan their writing, such as brainstorming and using graphic organizers. They are able to write texts in a wide range of genres and select appropriate text structures to fit their purposes. Additionally, fluent writers are able to independently use tools like dictionaries and thesauri to improve their writing pieces.

Question 6

Explain the stages of the writing process.

Answer 6

In the prewriting stage, writers brainstorm ideas, decide on topics, and plan the structure of their writing. This may include brainstorming, using webs or other graphic organizers to map out main ideas and details, and creating outlines. Writers consider who their audiences will be and what their purposes are for writing.

In the drafting stage, writers create their rough drafts. The focus of this
stage is recording thoughts. Students are encouraged not to worry about spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors, which will be corrected later.

In the revising stage, writers consider if any portions of their writing lack
clarity or if any parts should be added or removed. They examine word
choice and consider if there are ways to make the writing more descriptive. They also seek feedback from others about ways their writing could be improved.

In the editing stage, writers carefully check their writing for spelling,
capitalization, punctuation, and grammatical errors. They also ask others to edit their writing to ensure no errors are overlooked.

In the publishing stage, writers share their writing with others. This may
involve creating illustrated books, reading aloud in authors’ circles, putting on plays, or presenting in other ways.

Question 7

Explain some strategies to teach students the writing process.

Answer 7

Modeling is an important strategy to help students become familiar with the writing process. Teachers can lead their classes in creating shared pieces of writing, going through each step as a group. Teachers can also share examples of their personal writing as they introduce each step of the process. Multiple examples that represent writing from various genres should be included to show students how the process can be applied to different types of writing.

Teachers can post charts outlining the steps of the writing process in
their classrooms. Regular time should be set aside to work on writing so
that, at the beginning of each session, students can identify which steps
of the writing process they will focus on that day. This will help them
establish goals for each session and maintain focus.

Teachers should also schedule time for frequent conferring with
students to provide feedback and ensure they are staying focused on the process. Additionally, teachers can provide opportunities for students to reflect on the process and the changes they have made to improve their writing.

Question 8

Explain the benefits of conferring with students during the writing process, and explain some strategies for conferring effectively.

Answer 8

There are several benefits of conferring with students during the writing
process. When writers know they will be frequently meeting with
teachers, it increases accountability for following the writing process. It
also gives teachers opportunities to provide timely feedback to students
and personalize instruction based on their individual needs.

It is important for teachers to model the conference process for students before beginning. Students should be aware of the purposes of the conferences and the expectations for their roles. Additionally, students should practice routines for what to do while their teachers are conferring with others. This modeling and practice will increase the
likelihood that conferences can be conducted without interruptions.

There are multiple ways that conferences can be conducted, but they
typically include students sharing the progress they have made since
their last conference and discussing any questions or concerns they
have. Teachers usually pick a few points to focus on with each student,
showing specific ways that improvements can be made using examples
or mentor texts. Teachers should use the academic language of writing
in their conferences. Additionally, conferences should be positive and
motivating in nature to help students develop positive feelings about
writing.

Question 9

Describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to help students write effectively for different audiences.

Answer 9

As part of the prewriting process, writers should be encouraged to
identify their intended audience. Once they have identified their
audience, they should consider several factors. One factor is how much
prior knowledge their audience has about the topics. This will affect
what level of background information and detail the writers should go
into to meet the audience members’ needs. For example, writers who are explaining how to use computer programs will focus on different
program capabilities depending on whether the audience members are
beginners or advanced users. Another factor to consider is what type of
relationship the writers have to their audience. This will affect the level
of formality used in the writing. For example, a friendly letter to a
classmate will be less formal than a letter written to a government
representative.

Teachers should give students frequent opportunities to complete
authentic writing activities for varied audiences rather than only
submitting assignments for teacher evaluation. They can also provide
opportunities for students to compare and contrast texts that are
written about the same topics but written for different audiences.

Question 10

Describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to help students effectively write in various forms and genres.

Answer 10

Genre studies are one way to help students learn to effectively write in
different genres. In genre studies, classes study one genre at a time, in
detail, over the course of a few weeks. They read many different mentor
texts in the genre and discuss common characteristics. Students can then be encouraged to complete their own writing activities within the genre, using the mentor texts as models.

A similar approach can be used to teach students to effectively write in
different forms. For example, when learning to write friendly letters,
students can explore many different examples. They can discuss
common characteristics and use the examples as models when writing
their own friendly letters.

Another strategy is to provide a mixture of strong and weak examples of a genre or writing form and ask students to evaluate their effectiveness. They can discuss which examples they think are the most effective and what characteristics these examples display that make them more successful. Similarly, they can discuss which features the weak examples contain or lack that make them less successful. They can then be encouraged to consider these findings during their own writing activities.

Question 11

Describe some strategies that can be used to develop writing skills.

Answer 11

Developing effective writing skills requires a multifaceted approach. Like
reading, writing should be interwoven through the school day and all
content areas rather than taught in isolation. It requires a combination of explicit skills instruction and opportunities to freely explore and experiment with writing. Skills instruction should include a wide range of topics, including spelling grammar, language use, text structures, and more.

It is important to help students develop positive attitudes about writing.
Building a community of writers where students can freely collaborate,
share, and solicit feedback can help students feel safe and supported in the writing process. Students need to be explicitly taught how to solicit feedback from classmates and how to provide constructive and respectful feedback to others.

Because reading and writing are interrelated, students also need frequent opportunities to both read and write texts of different genres and purposes. They need to compare and contrast different texts and evaluate both their own writing and the writing of others. They should be explicitly taught how to participate in the five steps of the writing process, and they should receive frequent feedback on their writing. Feedback should provide specific suggestions for improvement in a positive and encouraging manner.

Question 12

Describe some instructional strategies to help students effectively compose written texts.

Answer 12

While teaching the writing process, teachers should help students
understand that quality writing takes time. They can model their own
writing processes and share stories about the writing processes of
favorite authors. Writing stamina can be developed gradually in younger students, with writing workshop time increasing as the year goes on. Although students need models of quality writing, they also benefit from seeing weak examples. Students can evaluate a range of writing samples and contrast their effectiveness. Comparing both strong and weak examples will help writers identify the characteristics of quality texts and consider them in their own writing.

Students should also be encouraged to engage in multiple rounds of
revision. Revisions should be based on feedback from both peers and
teachers as well as personal reflection. Students should also be explicitly taught how to consider feedback critically and decide which suggestions to implement and which to disregard.

Additionally, teachers should monitor students’ writing through
observation and conferences and plan mini-lessons based on the issues
they notice. For writing that will be evaluated, rubrics should be given in
advance. Students should be encouraged to consult the rubrics and self
evaluate their own writing at multiple stages throughout the process.

Question 13

Describe some strategies to assist students with the revision process.

Answer 13

Revising is often a difficult part of the writing process as students may
struggle to see how they can improve their own writing pieces. First, it is
important that students understand that the focus of revision is on
improving clarity, detail, word choice, and other features rather than on
the spelling and mechanical issues they will address during editing.

Modeling is often an effective way to help students understand the
revision process. Teachers can share their own writing pieces and ask
students to identify areas that do not make sense or could be explained
in better detail. For example, teachers may ask students to close their
eyes and visualize while they read one portion of their written pieces
aloud. After asking students to share their visualizations, teachers may
revise the writing to include more sensory details. Students can repeat
the visualization process and note the differences. Teachers can also
model writing sentences in multiple ways and ask which ways sound
best. They may also help students identify descriptive words that can be
used to replace commonly used words, such as replacing the word nice
with amiable. These lists can be posted in classrooms for students to
refer to when writing.

Question 14

Describe the stages of first language acquisition.

Answer 14

Until about four to six months of age, babies are in the cooing stage. Babies in this stage commonly make vowel sounds, which represent their first attempts at oral language.

From about four to six months until one year of age, babies are in the
babbling stage. At first, they commonly make repeated consonant-vowel sounds, such as ma-ma. Over tune, their babbling begins to show the expressive patterns they hear in the language around them. They repeat sounds that others respond to and reinforce.

From about 12 to 24 months of age, children are in the one-word stage. In this stage, children begin referring to objects by consistent, one-word names. These words may be real or invented, and children begin to use language to convey meaning to others.

From ages two to three, most children enter the telegraphic stage, when they string together words to convey meaning. The words that convey the most meaning in sentences are often included, whereas articles, conjunctions, and other words are omitted.

After age three, most children enter the beginning oral fluency stage. They now use more complex sentences and begin using sentence structure and syntax appropriately. They use language for a variety of purposes.

Question 15

Describe the stages of second language acquisition.

Answer 15

In the preproduction stage, English language learners (ELLs) are
listening and taking in the second language. Comprehension is minimal
at this point. ELLs may not yet speak to others in the second language,
and this stage is therefore sometimes referred to as the silent period.
ELLs may communicate with gestures or single words.

In the early production stage, comprehension is still limited. ELLs
begin responding using one- or two-word answers. Vocabulary in the
second language begins to grow.

The speech emergence stage is marked by increased comprehension.
ELLs begin speaking in longer sentences, but grammatical errors may be present. Vocabulary in the second language greatly increases.
In the intermediate proficiency stage, ELLs are able to comprehend
much of what they hear. They begin speaking in more complex
sentences that contain fewer grammatical errors. They are able to
fluently communicate with others in the second language for a variety of purposes.

In the advanced fluency stage, ELLs understand academic vocabulary
and need little support to participate actively in the classroom. Students
in this stage speak with near-native English fluency.

Question 16

Describe the components of oral language development.

Answer 16

Phonological skills are one component of oral language development.
These skills include the ability to recognize and manipulate sounds in spoken words. Rhyming and identifying syllables are examples of phonological skills.

Syntactic skills are another component. Syntactic skills include
understanding grammatical rules and how to correctly arrange words in
sentences. Children begin by using simple syntax, such as combining two words to express needs and wants. Over time, their sentence structure becomes more complex.

Oral language also includes a semantic component, which refers to the
ability to understand the meanings of words, phrases, sentences, and longer texts. The semantic component is vital for comprehension.

Morphological skills are another component of oral language development. Morphological skills include understanding the meanings of word parts.

Finally, pragmatics refers to understanding the social rules of language.
Examples of pragmatics include knowing how to adjust the formality of
language depending on the audience and knowing how to respond in certain social situations.

Question 17

Describe the relationship between oral language development and literacy development.

Answer 17

Most children learn to speak through immersion in language-rich
environments, with no formal speech instruction necessary. Starting at birth, these early language interactions help set the stage for later literacy development. Early language play, such as sharing songs, nursery rhymes, and poems, assists young children with the development of phonological awareness skills. Strong phonological awareness skills are a solid predictor of future reading success. Hearing spoken language also helps children understand syntax and how sounds and words are combined to form meaning.

As children engage in frequent and varied oral language opportunities, they also increase their vocabularies. Opportunities to use both social and academic vocabulary during listening and speaking activities assists students with comprehending vocabulary words encountered in texts.

Oral language experiences also help readers understand that language can be used for a variety of purposes, such as meeting needs, social interaction, and persuading others. This assists with recognizing an author’s purpose. An understanding of cultural norms and nuances is also developed through oral language experiences.

Additionally, comprehension requires the ability to combine literal meanings of words with prior knowledge and world experiences. Oral language activities, such as following directions, can assist with this.

Question 18

Describe some specific instructional strategies to promote oral language skills.

Answer 18

When engaging in listening and speaking activities with students, it is
recommended to use vocabulary words in context to promote
comprehension later. Research has shown that identifying vocabulary
words on flash cards and other similar types activities has little effect on
later reading comprehension, whereas the ability to recognize and use
words in context does.

Students should also have many opportunities to listen and speak for a
variety of purposes to both peers and adults. Friendly conversations,
academic discussions, formal presentations, and social interactions are
all examples of different types of oral language activities. Varied
activities will help students learn to change their language structures to
fit the purposes of the interactions. Teachers can change their language
structures throughout the school day. For example, they might chat
informally with students about their interests during a morning meeting
and switch to academic language when discussing a novel.

Additionally, students of all ages can benefit from reading and listening
to a large variety of texts containing different types of sentence
structure, language, and vocabulary. Young children can also benefit
from word play and phonological awareness activities.

Question 19

Describe some specific instructional strategies to develop listening and speaking skills.

Answer 19

Like reading and writing, listening and speaking activities should be
incorporated throughout all content areas rather than taught in
isolation. Students should be given multiple opportunities each day to
listen and speak for a variety of purposes.

Students can listen to texts in audio form, listen to teachers read aloud,
or participate in paired reading activities in all content areas. Before
beginning, they can be given specific purposes for listening to focus their attention. They can participate in role-playing scenarios to model
common social situations and conflict resolution. They can be given
frequent opportunities to present their learning to others using a variety of formats. Audience members can be instructed to ask specific and relevant questions, and presenters can be instructed to provide well-supported and evidence-based answers. Additionally, collaborative,
problem-based learning activities can be planned, requiring all students
to have roles within their groups.

For ELLs and students who struggle with speaking, partially completed
scripts and/or sentence stems can be provided. These tools can assist
students with outlining thoughts and organizing sentence structure
before speaking.

Question 20

Recommend ways to create learning environments that are supportive of students’ cultural and linguistic differences.

Answer 20

Classrooms should incorporate culturally and linguistically diverse
materials, including those that represent the cultures of students.
Reading materials, artwork, classroom labels, and posters are all
examples of diverse materials that can be included. Students should also have opportunities to share items that are meaningful to them with other classmates.

Additionally, ELLs should not be punished for reluctance to participate
in discussions. Instead, they should be offered support and scaffolding
when needed. When ELLs are in the early stages of English language
acquisition, teachers can also use simple sentence structures and
provide visual clues to support students’ comprehension.

Teachers should also work to create nonthreatening and supportive
classroom environments by modeling accepting attitudes. They can
model and explicitly teach how to compare and contrast different
cultures respectfully. When studying historical and current events,
teachers can help students explore the events from different
perspectives and discuss how culture can affect people’s experiences.

Question 21

Explain why it is important to explicitly teach students nonverbal communication skills. Additionally, describe some specific instructional strategies to help students develop nonverbal communication skills appropriate for use in various settings.

Answer 21

Nonverbal communication, sometimes known as body language, includes gestures, facial expressions, and posture. Verbal and nonverbal communication work together to convey desired messages. If nonverbal communication is inappropriate for the audiences or purposes used, the meaning of the verbal communication maybe lost or misconstrued. For example, a child may thank a grandparent for a gift. However, if the child has a disappointed look on his or her face while speaking, the grandparent may believe the child does not like the gift.

Additionally, certain types of nonverbal communication can be interpreted differently depending on culture. What is socially acceptable in one culture may be considered rude in another. Students should be aware of the messages their nonverbal communication sends to different audiences.

Teachers can engage students in discussions about what messages are sent by different types of nonverbal communication. They can role-play common scenarios and have other students evaluate the messages conveyed through both verbal and nonverbal communication. Students can also watch video clips of realistic situations, such as job interviews, and evaluate the nonverbal language of the participants. When giving presentations, teachers also provide checklists outlining expected nonverbal communication, such as eye contact with others and strong posture.

Question 22

Explain the role that oral language plays in the development of critical thinking skills. Describe some strategies teachers can use to support the development of critical thinking skills using oral language activities.

Answer 22

Oral language leads to the development of other communication skills.
Babies first listen to their caregivers and later say their first words
before they learn to read and write. Through listening, children learn to
evaluate the messages of others and make sense of newly learned
information. Through speaking, they learn to organize and communicate their thoughts to others. All of these skills assist with the development of critical thinking skills.

Teachers can ask students to explain their thinking to others. They can
also teach students to defend their answers using support and evidence. Students can also be explicitly taught to use strategic questioning when interacting with classmates. Strategic questions require higher-level thinking to answer, and questions with yes-or-no answers should be limited. For example, students explaining the results of science experiments might be asked to evaluate their processes and explain what they might do differently in the future. Additionally, students can respond to high-level questions about texts during class discussions and literature circles. For example, they can be asked to evaluate the ways that authors use persuasive techniques.

Question 23

Describe some types of language disorders and ways they can affect learning.

Answer 23

Language delays and disorders can fall into three categories. Receptive
disorders make it difficult for people to understand the messages
communicated by others. Expressive disorders make it difficult for
people to communicate their thoughts and ideas to others. Mixed
receptive-expressive language disorders involve difficulties in both
areas. These disorders can either be developmental or acquired.
Acquired disorders are caused by injury or illness.

Within each of these categories, there are many different types of
disorders. Apraxia, stuttering, and articulation disorders are some
examples of expressive disorders. Students with expressive disorders
may find it difficult to produce certain sounds, organize their thoughts
into sentences, or use language appropriately in social situations.
Therefore, classroom activities that require speaking and/or writing
may be difficult. Students with receptive disorders may find it difficult to
remember details or follow spoken directions. For example, they may
not remember multistep directions that are given verbally for
assignments.

Question 24

Describe some instructional strategies to meet the needs of students with language delays and disorders.

Answer 24

Although students with language delays and disorders often receive
professional speech therapy, there are many strategies teachers can use to support these students within the classroom.

Teachers should model treating students with language disorders
respectfully. They should not interrupt students with expressive disorders or attempt to finish their sentences. Instead, adequate response time should be provided. Students can also be given advance notice of the questions they will be asked, allowing them time to formulate responses.

Students with receptive disorders who have difficulties processing or
remembering speech may benefit from receiving information in multiple forms. When giving project directions, for example, teachers can provide written directions and explain them verbally. Multistep directions can be broken down into simple steps. Visuals can be used to help students comprehend vocabulary used in speech. Additionally, teachers can ensure that they have obtained students’ attention before speaking, and they can monitor students for understanding.

For students who struggle with language pragmatics, role-playing activities can be used to practice appropriate responses for a variety of common social situations, such as asking for help or greeting people.