Phonics and Decoding

Question 1

Explain the importance of building rapid word identification and automaticity when reading.

Answer 1

Rapid word identification and automaticity refer to the quick,
effortless, and accurate recognition of individual words when reading.
Speed and accuracy are strong predictors of comprehension, so the
ability to identify words automatically plays an important role in
reading development.

When readers come to unfamiliar words in texts, they pause to use
reading strategies. This includes applying phonics skills and using
semantic and syntactic clues. Using these strategies takes time, which
may cause the reader to slow down. Applying strategies to decode words
also requires significant processing in working memory, which is
limited. This diverts attention away from comprehending the text, and
comprehension may be negatively affected. When readers develop the
ability to accurately and automatically identify words, they free up space
in working memory to use for comprehension. This shift often occurs
around second and third grade.

It is also important to remember that rapid word identification and
automaticity are necessary for fluency but not sufficient on their own.
Fluency also involves reading with appropriate phrasing and intonation.

Question 2

Describe specific instructional strategies that can be used to build automatic recognition of high-frequency awareness skills, ranging from basic to advanced.
sight words.

Answer 2

Readers need several opportunities to see words before they can
automatically recognize them. Therefore, providing opportunities for
repeated exposure to high-frequency sight words is an important goal of
reading instruction and should be included along with explicit phonics
instruction.

Sight words are commonly introduced to students a few at a time. The
most frequently used words, such as a, you, and the, are typically
introduced first. Some reading programs coordinate sight word lists
with weekly texts, ensuring that students will have frequent exposure to
each set of words as they are introduced.

There are several types of activities that can be done to build sight word
recognition. Having students go on “word hunts” to locate and circle
sight words in texts is one activity. Sight words can be built using
magnetic letters or spelled in the air with fingers or wands. Activities
that require students to read, build, and write each word are also
commonly used. Additionally, flash card drills can be incorporated into
the school day.

Question 3

Describe the typical progression of phonological awareness skills, ranging from basic to advanced.

Answer 3

One of the earliest phonological awareness skills children develop is the
ability to recognize rhyming words. After recognizing rhyming words
heard in stories, songs, and poems, children begin to produce their own
sets of rhyming words. Alliteration, or identifying and producing words
with the same initial sounds, is another early phonological awareness
skill.

Later, children develop awareness of syllables. This involves both the
ability to blend syllables to form whole words and the ability to break
whole words into syllables. They also develop the ability to blend and
segment onsets and rimes. Onsets are composed of the initial
consonants or consonant blends in syllables, whereas rimes consist of
the vowels and remaining consonants that follow. For example, in the
word star, /st/ is the onset, and /ar/ is the rime. Phonemic awareness is
the most advanced phonological awareness skill, and it is usually
developed after the others.

Question 4

Identify the relationship between phonological awareness and phonemic awareness.

Answer 4

Although they are often used interchangeably, phonological awareness
and phonemic awareness are distinct terms. Phonological awareness
is a broader tei-m that refers to the ability to identify and manipulate
sounds in spoken language. This can refer to identifying and
manipulating sounds at the word, syllable, or phoneme level. Example
activities include rhyming, alliteration, breaking words into syllables,
dividing syllables into onsets and rimes, and blending and segmenting
phonemes.

Phonemic awareness is one specific component of phonological
awareness. It focuses on the ability to identify and manipulate sounds at
the phoneme level only. Phonemes are the smallest units of speech, and
phonemic awareness is therefore the most advanced component of
phonological awareness. It usually develops after other phonological
awareness skills.

In summary, phonemic awareness is one specific component of
phonological awareness.

Question 5

Describe some specific phonemic awareness skills.

Answer 5

One early phonemic awareness skill is phoneme isolation, which is the
ability to identify specific phonemes in spoken words. This includes
identifying beginning (initial), middle (medial), and ending (final)
sounds. Another skill is phoneme identification, which involves
identifying the common sound in a list of words that have either the
same beginning, middle, or ending sound. In phoneme
characterization, students are given a set of words in which all but one
have the same beginning, middle, or ending phoneme, and they must
identify the word that doesn’t belong.

In blending, a more complex skill, students are given the phonemes that
make up a word in isolation. They must then identify the whole word
formed by putting the phonemes together. In segmentation, students
are given a whole word and must identify the individual phonemes that
make up that word. Phoneme deletion involves removing one phoneme
from a word and identifying what new word was formed. Phoneme
substitution involves changing one phoneme in a word and identifying
what new word was formed.

Question 6

Describe some specific activities that can be used to teach phoneme blending and segmentation.

Answer 6

Children often benefit from a multisensory approach to phonemic
blending and segmentation. Elkonin boxes are one tool that can be
used. Elkonin boxes consist of a series of connected boxes on paper.
Students listen to a word and slide a penny or other token into a box
each time they hear a new sound. For example, while listening to the
word cat, students would slide three pennies into the boxes.

Students can also be given strings of beads, and they can move one bead
for every sound, or phoneme, they hear. They can slide the beads back
together as they blend the sounds to form the whole words again.
Rubber bands can be used in a similar manner. Students can say whole
words with the rubber bands un-stretched and then slowly stretch the
bands as they segment the sounds. They can then push the rubber bands
back together again as they blend the sounds to form the whole words.

Question 7

Define phonics and explain the role that it plays in promoting reading and writing development.

Answer 7

Phonics refers to the relationship between letters and the sounds they
make. After children learn to identify letter names, they learn that each
letter makes a predictable sound. They later learn that groups of letters,
such as consonant blends and digraphs, make predictable sounds as
well. This understanding of letter-sound relationships is known as
phonics.

Understanding the predictable relationship between letters and the
sounds they make is important for the development of both decoding
and encoding skills. When early readers come across unfamiliar words,
they use knowledge of letter-sound relationships to decode the words as
one common reading strategy. For early readers, this is especially
helpful for unknown words that follow predictable spelling patterns,
such as CVC words. When children are engaging in early writing
activities, they use knowledge of letter-sound relationships to write
words, which is known as encoding.

Question 8

Differentiate between phonemic awareness and phonics.

Answer 8

Phonemic awareness and phonics are commonly confused terms, but
they are not the same. Phonemic awareness refers to identifying and
manipulating phonemes in spoken language. Phonics refers to the
relationship between letters and the sounds they make. A key question
to ask when deciding if an activity is related to phonemic awareness or
phonics is whether or not any letters are involved. If letters and their
sounds are involved, the activity is related to phonics rather than
phonemic awareness.

For example, asking students what sounds they hear in the word cat is a
phonemic awareness activity because they are identifying sounds in a
spoken word. However, asking students to decode the word cat when it
is written in a text is a phonics activity because students must use their
understanding of letter-sound relationships to successfully decode the
word. Students are also using phonics skills if they write the word cat by
identifying the sounds that they hear and writing the letters that make
those sounds.

Question 9

Define fluency, and explain the relationship between fluency and comprehension.

Answer 9

Fluency is defined as reading accurately with the appropriate speed and
intonation. Beginning readers typically have to stop and decode
unknown words frequently, which affects both speed and intonation.
Over time, as readers develop rapid word recognition, their reading
speed increases. Appropriate intonation is also developed through
frequent shared and guided reading experiences.

Research has shown that reading fluency is one major predictor of
reading comprehension. Non-fluent readers burden their working
memories with decoding. Sentences are read in a fragmented way,
making it difficult for the brain to organize and make sense of what was
read. After expending the energy to decode difficult words, they may
forget what they have previously read. Fluent readers are free to use
working memory for comprehending the text. They read using smooth,
continuous phrasing, making it easier for the brain to make sense of
what has been read.

Question 10

Explain how readers use semantic cues to figure out unknown words and make meaning from texts. Also explain strategies that teachers can use to encourage
readers to use semantic cues.

Answer 10

Readers use multiple cueing systems to figure out unknown words and
make meaning from texts. When readers use semantic cues, they use
prior knowledge from personal experiences along with meaning
contained in the text and pictures to make sense of what they are
reading. When they are stuck on unknown words, they consider what
they already know about the topic or look to context clues or pictures for
hints.

To encourage the use of semantic cues, students should be exposed to a
wide range of texts and experiences to build prior knowledge and
vocabulary. Teachers can conduct picture walks before students read
new texts to activate prior knowledge and provide hints about the
meaning of the texts. Students can be encouraged to make predictions
before and during reading based on prior knowledge and text clues.
Know, what, and learn (KWL) charts can be completed to help readers
activate prior knowledge, and graphic organizers can be used to
highlight text connections. Readers should also be encouraged to ask
themselves if what they have read makes sense to encourage miscue
recognition and self-correction.

Question 11

Explain how readers use syntactic cues to figure out unknown words and make meaning from texts. Also explain strategies that teachers can use to encourage readers to use syntactic cues.

Answer 11

Readers use multiple cueing systems to figure out unknown words and
make meaning from texts. When readers use syntactic cues, they use
knowledge about correct oral language structures and the ways
sentences are put together to decode and make meaning. For example,
readers may use knowledge about subject-verb agreement and word
order to decode new words and make meaning from sentences.

To encourage readers to use syntactic cues, teachers can model types of
complex sentences. Sentences from familiar stories can be
deconstructed, and students can be asked to put them back together
again. Teachers can also provide sample sentences that each have one
word covered and ask students to guess the missing word. Teachers can
then ask students to explain how they figured out the missing word.
Readers should also be encouraged to ask themselves if what they have
read sounds right to encourage miscue recognition and self-correction.

Question 12

Differentiate between decoding and encoding, and explain how spelling analysis can be used to assess phonics knowledge.

Answer 12

Decoding refers to the process of translating print to speech, which is
done by translating graphemes into phonemes. Graphemes are letters
or groups of letters that represent a single sound, and phonemes are the
smallest units of sound in language. When a reader uses strategies to
read the printed word chair, he or she is decoding the word.

Encoding refers to the process of translating sounds to print using
knowledge of letter-sound relationships. This is done by translating
phonemes to graphemes. When a writer uses knowledge of the sounds
letters make to write the word hop, he or she is encoding the word.

Observing how a developing writer spells can be used to assess phonics
knowledge. It can provide information about the writer’s understanding
of when to apply certain spelling patterns. By observing the writer’s
work over time, a teacher can determine which phonics strategies the
writer has mastered and which are still developing. This information can
be used to plan individualized phonics instruction. For example, if a
writer frequently spells CVCe words without the e at the end, the teacher
may focus on this spelling pattern during guided reading lessons with
the student.

Question 13

Describe specific instructional strategies to teach decoding of common spelling patterns, such as CVC, CVCC, CVVC, and CVCe words.

Answer 13

Blending is a common strategy to teach decoding of CVC words.
Students say the sound represented by each letter in the word and then
state the whole word they made. To increase fluency, students can be
encouraged to increase the speed of blending over time. Once CVC words
have been mastered and students have been introduced to consonant
blends and digraphs, they can use the same blending process with CVCC
words.

For CVVC and CVCe words that cannot be decoded using blending,
students can be introduced to the sounds made by each spelling pattern.
They can then build and explore word families that contain the same
spelling pattern, changing the initial sounds to build new, related words.
For example, after identifying the sound that /ake/ makes, students can
build rake, cake, and lake using letter tiles or magnetic letters.

Question 14

Describe specific instructional strategies to teach decoding of multisyllabic words.

Answer 14

Although decoding instruction typically tapers off around second grade, it is
at this point that students begin reading texts with more complex,
multisyllabic words. Therefore, it is important to teach specific strategies
that readers can use to decode these types of words.

One strategy is to teach students to identify the different syllables present in
a word. This can be done by clapping each syllable or saying the word while
looking in a mirror and observing how many times the mouth opens.
Students can then be taught to recognize common syllable spelling patterns
and the sounds that they make. These common syllable spelling patterns
include the following:
* closed syllables, which end in a consonant and usually have a short
vowel sound (e.g., rabbit)
* open syllables, which end in a vowel and usually have a long vowel
sound (e.g., bagel)
* r-controlled vowels (e.g., carpet)
* vowel digraph pairs (e.g., detain)
* vowel-consonant-silent-e syllables, which usually have a long vowel
sound (e.g., athlete)
* consonant-le words, which are usually found at the end of a word (e.g.,
maple)
Readers can also be taught to look for known parts of words, such as known
prefixes and suffixes.

Question 15

Define consonant blend and consonant digraph, and describe specific instructional strategies to teach decoding of words containing each.

Answer 15

A consonant blend is a group of two or three consonants that blend
together to make a sound, but each individual letter sound is still heard.
Examples include bI,fr, and sw. Blends are typically introduced after
readers have learned to decode basic CVC words, and they are
introduced in groups according to the second consonant they contain.
Blends containing two consonants are usually introduced before blends
containing three consonants. When introducing each blend, the teacher
shows students how the sounds of each consonant are blended together
to form the new sound. Common words containing the blend can be
listed, and students can go on word hunts to find additional examples of
words containing the blend. Students can also sort cards containing
pictures of objects whose names are spelled with consonant blends.

A consonant digraph is a group of two consonants that form a new
consonant sound when combined. Examples include th, sh, and ch.
Digraphs are also typically introduced a few at a time, with beginning
digraphs introduced before ending digraphs. Creating lists of example
words, going on word hunts, and completing matching and sorting
activities can also be used to teach digraphs.

Question 16

Define r-controlled vowels, and describe specific instructional strategies to teach decoding of words containing them.

Answer 16

R-controlled vowels are vowels that appear before the letter r in a
word. Words containing this spelling pattern are sometimes referred to
as bossy-r words, because the letter r changes the sound of the vowel.
The r-controlled vowel pairs are ar, er, ir, or, and er.

To teach decoding of words containing r-controlled vowels, teachers can
model blending of simple words containing these spelling patterns by
sliding their fingers along the words as they blend them. For each word,
they can point out that the vowel and r together make one sound, and
they can generate a list of other words containing the same letter pair
and sound. Students can also be given word or picture cards to sort
according to which r-controlled vowel sound they contain. Another
strategy is to provide a picture of an object that contains an r-controlled
vowel in its name. The word can be written below the picture, with the
r-controlled vowel omitted. Students can be asked to provide the
missing letters to complete the word.

Question 17

Explain the benefits of explicit phonics instruction and the role it plays in a balanced literacy program.

Answer 17

Research has shown that early readers benefit from an explicit and
systematic approach to phonics instruction. Developing readers who
receive explicit and systematic phonics instruction at an early age often
show increased ability to decode and spell, along with increased reading
comprehension skills when older.

Explicit instruction means that phonics lessons are purposely planned
to address specific skills rather than waiting until problems arise with
decoding words while reading. For example, a teacher may plan to focus
on a set of consonant blends during one week of reading instruction.
Systematic instruction means that the lessons follow a carefully planned
scope and sequence, with phonics lessons progressing from basic to
advanced. Early phonics lessons for kindergarteners may focus on letter-sound
relationships, whereas first grade students may focus on decoding
different spelling patterns.

Explicit phonics instruction is only one component of a balanced literacy
program and time should be allocated to focus on other components as
well.

Question 18

Explain the role that phonological awareness and phonics skills play in the reading development of English language learners (ELLS).

Answer 18

For English language learners (ELL5), research has shown that
phonological awareness in a reader’s first language is a strong predictor
of his or her ability to learn to read in a second language. This is
especially true when the native language is closely related to English.
Despite the fact that phonological awareness in the native language can
be beneficial when learning English, it may lead to overgeneralization of
rules of the native language. Continued language experiences in the
native language along with language scaffolding can be beneficial to
ELLs as they learn English.

Some ELLs may also speak native languages in which there is not a one-to-
one correspondence between letters and phonemes. They may also
speak languages that use the same alphabet as English but where the
letters represent different sounds. It is important for teachers to
understand their ELLs’ prior knowledge and consider this when
planning appropriate phonics instruction.

Additionally, some English phonemes may not be used in other
languages. Introducing English vocabulary words that contain these
phonemes helps give these sounds a meaningful context. Using poems
and songs with repetition and rhyme can also be helpful.

Question 19

Explain the role that phonological awareness and phonics skills play in the reading development of struggling and proficient students.

Answer 19

Research has shown that phonological awareness and phonics skills are
important predictors of reading success. For struggling readers, daily
phonological awareness and phonics practice are important. Explicit and
systematic instruction should be tailored to the individual needs of each
student and based upon observation and assessment data. Once a
teacher has determined which skills the student needs to improve,
instruction should be regularly included to target these skills until
mastered. Ongoing reading assessments and flexible groupings can help
make sure that struggling readers’ individual needs are consistently met.

Phonological awareness and phonics assessments are important for
proficient readers as well. Some proficient readers have developed
strong rapid word identification skills without mastering the underlying
phonological awareness and phonics skills. When they get into older
grade levels and more frequently encounter unfamiliar vocabulary, they
will have difficulty decoding the text. Assessment data can be used to
identify specific skills to practice in small-group instruction with these
proficient readers.

Question 20

Explain the role that natural exposure to phonics plays in early reading development,

Answer 20

Like explicit phonics instruction, natural exposure to phonics also plays
a role in early reading development. This exposure occurs when children
are involved in natural reading experiences, and they come across words
they are unable to decode. Phonics instruction is provided in the
moment to address the unknown words.

This type of phonics instruction is known as implicit instruction. It
differs from explicit instruction, which progresses from part (letter
sounds) to whole (whole words). Implicit instruction progresses from
whole (unknown words encountered in text) to part (breaking down the
words in order to decode them).

Implicit phonics instruction has some benefits. Because it occurs during
natural reading experiences, the phonics skills are taught in context
rather than in isolation. Readers are motivated to learn the skills needed
to decode the unknown words and continue reading. Teachers can allow
time to address unknown words while reading aloud or listening to
students reading independently. However, research has shown that it is
still important to schedule time for explicit and systematic phonics
instruction as well.

Question 21

Describe strategies to teach letter identification of both lowercase and capital letters.

Answer 21

Most reading programs introduce letters gradually. Some suggest
introducing letters that have high value to learners first, such as the first
letters of their names. Others focus on letters that play prominent roles
in the books they are reading for the week, whereas others sequence
letters by physical characteristics. In general, it is best to avoid teaching
commonly confused letter pairs simultaneously, such as b and d.

To develop letter recognition, students can be given texts and instructed
to circle certain letters. They can play alphabet bingo and cover specific
letters when they are called. They can sing the alphabet song while
pointing to each letter. Additionally, they can go on letter hunts, where
they search the classroom or building to find examples of specific letters
in environmental print. To practice recognizing capital and lowercase
forms of letters, students can play memory and find matches consisting
of both letter forms.

Question 22

Describe specific instructional strategies to teach letter formation for both capital and lowercase letters.

Answer 22

To teach letter formation, students can be given letter stencils to trace
with pencils. They can also be provided cutout letters made from
different materials, such as felt and sandpaper, to trace with their
fingers. Later, they can attempt to write letters independently on writing
paper following the school’s selected handwriting program guidelines.

To practice letter formation Using a multisensory approach, students can
write letters with shaving cream or fingerpaint. They can also write
letters in containers filled with salt or sand. Wax craft sticks, modeling
dough, and pipe cleaners can be used to construct letter models. Largesized
letters can also be drawn using sidewalk chalk, and students can
hop along the letter shapes to trace them. They can also trace letter
shapes in the air with their fingers or toy wands. Additionally, students
can be given outlines of letters, which they can fill in with buttons, dried
beans, or other common objects.

Question 23

Describe specific instructional strategies to teach letter-sound relationships.

Answer 23

Once students understand that letters are combined to form words that
convey meaning in print, they begin learning that each letter makes a
predictable sound. This is known as the alphabetic principle. Although
different reading programs introduce the letters and sounds in different
orders, most introduce the letter-sound relationships gradually.

In some reading programs, each letter has a song, poem, or chant that
incorporates repetition of the letter name and sound. In others, a letter
character or visual is produced, which includes a hint about the sound it
makes. The visual often includes a picture of a common object that starts
with the letter. Students can also be encouraged to find objects
beginning with the letter sound they are learning. Tactile activities, such
as building letters out of wax craft sticks oi, writing them in shaving
cream while repeating the names and sounds, are also commonly used.
Bingo and other similar games that require matching letters to their
sounds can also be used.

Question 24

Describe some key concepts of print that collectively form a foundation for early reading instruction.

Answer 24

Concepts of print are the conventions used to convey meaning in
printed text. Children begin developing an understanding of these
concepts from an early age through shared reading experiences with
others and interactions with printed materials.

Understanding concepts of print includes recognizing the front cover,
back cover, and title of a book. It also includes recognizing that the print,
rather than the pictures, carries the message. Additionally, it includes
directionality concepts, such as knowing that you read from left to right
and from the top of the page to the bottom, with a return sweep at the
end of each line of text. One-to-one correspondence between written
and spoken words is another concept of print. Letter concepts are also
important, such as knowing that words are made up of individual letters,
identifying letter names, and identifying both capital and lowercase
letters. Identifying the names and purposes of common punctuation
marks used to end sentences is also a key concept of print.

Question 25

Describe specific instructional strategies to teach print awareness.

Answer 25

Starting at an early age, caregivers and teachers can begin introducing
children to concepts of print. While reading storybooks and big books
aloud, they can model how to hold the books, where the front and back
covers and titles are located, and where to begin reading. They can also
model directionality by following the text with their fingers as they read,
showing the left-to-right movement and return sweep. They can point
out different text features, such as capital letters and punctuation marks,
and discuss their purposes.

When students are interacting with texts independently, teachers can
ask them questions regarding concepts of print. For example, they can
instruct students to follow the text with their fingers and pause after
encountering punctuation marks at the ends of sentences. Teachers can
also point out text features in environmental print, such as hallway
signs.