Science as a belief system

Question 1

How do secularisation theorists view science?

Answer 1

Undermines religion

Question 2

What impact has science had over the last few centuries?

Answer 2

• Achievements in medicine
• raised the standard of living
• basic features of daily life : transport, work
• revolutionised economic productivity

Question 3

Why has faith in science been somewhat dimmed?

Answer 3

Science can cause problems as well as solve them e.g. pollution, global warming, weapons. It has created its own ‘manufactured risks’ that threaten the planet.

Question 4

What is meant by science being an ‘open belief system’?

Answer 4

Every scientists’ theories are open to testing, challenge and criticism.

Question 5

What is meant by the principle of falsification?

Answer 5

Scientists set out to try and falsify existing theories. Deliberately seeking out evidence that would disprove them.

Question 6

Science is seen as ‘cumulative’. What does this mean?

Answer 6

It builds on the achievements of previous scientists to develop a greater understanding of the world.

Question 7

What key terms does Karl Popper talk about?

Answer 7

• Science as an open belief system
• The principle of falsification
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative

He says the key thing about scientific knowledge is that it isn’t sacred or absolute truth - it can always be questioned, criticised, tested and perhaps shown to be false.

Question 8

What does Merton argue?

Answer 8

Science can only thrive as a major social institution if it receives support from other institutions and values. Science needs an ‘ethos’ or set of norms that make scientists act in ways that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge.

Question 9

Who talks about the CUDOS norms?

Answer 9

Merton

Question 10

What 4 ‘CUDOS’ norms does Merton identify?

Answer 10

Communism
Universalism
Disinterestedness
Organised Scepticism

Question 11

Explain communism

Answer 11

Scientific knowledge is shared

Question 12

Explain universalism

Answer 12

Anyone can be a scientist regardless of race, gender etc.
Scientific knowledge is judged universal, objective criteria and not by the particular race, sex etc of the scientist who produces it.

Question 13

Explain Disinterestedness

Answer 13

Being objective and letting research be checked/tested by others.

Question 14

Explain Organised Scepticism

Answer 14

Every idea is open to questioning, criticism and investigation.

Question 15

In what ways is religion a closed belief system?

Answer 15

Knowledge is sacred on God’s divine authority. It can’t be tested, challenged and doesn’t change. It is fixed and doesn’t grow. Those who challenge it are punished.

Question 16

What does Polanyi argue about belief systems?

Answer 16

Argues all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge claims and science is no different.

Question 17

What happened to Dr Velikovsky?

Answer 17

He put forward a new theory on the origins of the earth which challenged some of the most fundamental assumptions in science. Scientists rejected it straight away without even reading the book he published. Scientists who called for a fair hearing and for the theory to be tested were victimised and lost their jobs.

Question 18

What does the case of Dr Velikovsky illustrate?

Answer 18

Science is as closed off as religion is.

Anyone who tries to work outside the paradigm get rejected.

Question 19

Who talks about paradigm?

Answer 19

Thomas Kuhn

Question 20

What does Thomas Kuhn argue?

Answer 20

Mature science is based on a set of shared assumptions called a paradigm. Scientists are socialised into the paradigm and if they challenge it they will be ostracised.
However if there are results the paradigm can’t account for then there will be a scientific revolution.

Question 21

Summarise what Thomas Kuhn says

Answer 21

He rejects Poppers claim that science is an open belief system. Kuhn sees it as a closed belief system similar to religion.​

Scientists work within an established set of ideas called a paradigm. Anyone who tries to work outside the paradigm, like Dr Velikovsky, get rejected.​

‘Normal science’ continues in this way until a scientific revolution takes place and then old ideas are abandoned and a new paradigm adopted.​

Question 22

Give examples of paradigm shifts in science

Answer 22

Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton.
–> Caused normal science to go into crisis which caused a paradigm shift and then went back to normal science.

Question 23

What does Karin Knorr-Cetina argue?

Answer 23

The invention of new instruments, such as telescopes or microscopes, permits scientists to make new observations and construct or ‘fabricate’ new facts.

Question 24

Who else criticises science?

Answer 24

Interpretivists
Marxists
Feminists
Postmodernists

Question 25

How do Marxists criticise science?

Answer 25

Scientists work on behalf of capitalism to make a profit e.g. COVID vaccines!​

Scientific evidence drives capitalism e.g. weapons

Question 25

How do feminists criticise science?

Answer 25

most scientists are men and scientific discoveries help men!​

Science oppresses women e.g. biological ideas have been used to justify male domination.

Question 26

How do interpretivists criticise science?

Answer 26

All knowledge is a social construct. Karin Knorr Cetina- scientific inventions enable them to see things they didn’t before! Scientists make things up as in the case of space discoveries!​

Question 27

How do postmodernists criticise science?

Answer 27

Scientific truths are just a grand or meta narrative (big story) and of no more worth than other truths!

Lyotard says science is one of a number of meta narratives (small truth) that falsely claim to possess the truth. Science is just one more discourse used to dominate people.