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microbiology > Final (comprehensive, ch 26,21,22) > Flashcards

Final (comprehensive, ch 26,21,22) Flashcards

1
Q

In the history of classification of microbes, who were the key historical contributors and what were their key contributions?

A

robert hooke built the first compound microscope, and robert koch founded the scientific method, lady montegue and louise pastor invented the first vaccines.

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2
Q

Globally where are microbes able to grow and not grow?

A

everywhere, they are ubiquitous

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3
Q

What are the typical size ranges of each major type of microbe?

A

eukaryote 2um - 20cm, prokaryote 0.4 - 10um

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4
Q

What microscopes most easily visualize moving flagella?

A

dark field microscopy

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5
Q

What number of starting cells would produce any given number of final cells in log phase growth after a specific number of generations?

A

log phase: the phase where organisms are actively dividing and the generation time is constant.
This is the steep upward slope of the bacterial growth curve, where organisms are rapidly multiplying.
Nt=N0x2^n: Nt is the final cell number, N0 is the original cell number n is the number of generations.

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6
Q

How is glucose transported into cells occur when energy sources (ATP/PEP etc) are not available?

A

passive transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis

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7
Q

When and how can oxygen be toxic to cells, and how do cells mediate this toxicity?

A

oxygen is toxic to aerobic cells that reqire enzymes to destroy reactive oxygen species (ROS)

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8
Q

What is the starvation response of cells?

A

enzymes can be produced to increase the efficiency of nutrient gathering, there can be programed cell death and TA (toxin-antitoxin) that is released to inactivate the toxin such as MazE and MazF

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9
Q

How are petri plates sterilized before we use them?

A

they are heated to kill bacteria that can interfere with tests

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10
Q

Why don’t bacteria grow in concentrated sugar solutions?

A

Sugar raises the solution’s osmolarity which increases ADH secretion, leading to reabsorption of water

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11
Q

What is the appearance and molecular structure of the sac around bacterial cells (based on an image)?

A

peryplasmic space?

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12
Q

Based on an image, how do some drugs function as weak acids or bases to enter cells?

A

Small molecules tend to penetrate membranes more rapidly than larger ones. Most drugs are weak organic acids or bases, existing in un-ionized and ionized forms in an aqueous environment. The un-ionized form is usually lipid soluble (lipophilic) and hydrophobic and diffuses readily across cell membranes.

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13
Q

What coupled processes allow bacteria to function and divide so rapidly compared to eukaryotes (based on an image)?

A

bacteria do not have a distinct nucleus that separates DNA from ribosomes, so there is no barrier to immediate translation and they have a singal recognition particle

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14
Q

What is polar aging?

A

Polar aging can cause members of the population to die as they accumulate damaged proteins at the “old” end of the cell. Some types of cells overcome this issue by alternating fast and slow extension of the poles.

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15
Q

What are the mechanisms of the different types of topoisomerases?

A

type I: single protein enzymes cleave one DNA strand and pass either one or two strands through the break before resealing it, releaves super coiling
type II: molecules cleave both DNA strands in concert and pass another double strand through the break followed by religation of the double strand break and uses ATP to introduce super coiling

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16
Q

What are the processes plasmids can use to get into new cells?

A

Plasmids are usually transferred from one bacterium to another via the process of conjugation (cell to cell) but they can also use transformation (environmental), and transduction (phage)

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17
Q

What are the error-proof and error-prone repair pathways?

A

prevent mutations:
a) methyl mismatch repair
b) photo reactivation
c) nucleotide excision repair
d) base excision repair
e) recombinational repair
cause mutations:
risk introducing mutations…operate only when damage is so severe that the cell has no other choice but to die

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18
Q

Why would error-proof pathways be maintained, in the face of evolution?

A

they prevent mutations and are favored in evolution

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19
Q

What are the processes and applications of CRISPR (based on an image)?

A

CRISPR is important because it allows scientists to rewrite the genetic code in almost any organism. It is simpler, cheaper, and more precise than previous gene editing techniques. Moreover, it has a range of real-world applications, including curing genetic disease and creating drought-resistant crops.

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20
Q

How and why do cells take up environmental DNA?

A

Many bacteria are naturally competent, able to actively transport environmental DNA fragments across their cell envelope and into their cytoplasm as a way to build their immunity.

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21
Q

What cell process(es) are sigma factors involved in?

A

Sigma factors are multi-domain subunits of bacterial RNA polymerase that play critical roles in transcription initiation, including the recognition and opening of promoters as well as the initial steps in RNA synthesis.

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22
Q

What is the structure and function of ABC transporters (based on an image)?

A

ABC transport is powered by ATP when a solute binding protein binds to the solute and then to the membrane transporter and ATP is used to bring the solute across the membrane of the cell

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23
Q

Why should cells control gene expression?

A

expressing genes that are not necessary is a waste of energy

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24
Q

What is the basic function of the control of the lac operon?

A

Lacl binds to the tetramer to the operon region and represses the lac operon. beta-galactosidase or LacZ cleaves lactose to make the inducer allolactose which binds to Lacl and allowing induction of the operon.

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25
Q

How is the trp operon expression controlled?

A

The trp operon is expressed (turned “on”) when tryptophan levels are low and repressed (turned “off”) when they are high. The trp operon is regulated by the trp repressor. When bound to tryptophan, the trp repressor blocks expression of the operon.

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26
Q

What are the common signaling molecules used in biofilm formation by E. coli, and what do they do within cells?

A

free swimming cells,

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27
Q

How are energy consuming and producing reactions coupled in terms of delta G?

A

is delta G is greater than 0 then you are using energy for the reaction to occur but if delta g is less than zero then you are gaining energy and the reaction is favorable

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28
Q

How do we define fermentation?

A

is the completion of catabolism without the electron transport system and a terminal electron acceptor.

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29
Q

What are the names and features of the three major pathways for glucose breakdown (based on an image)?

A

glycolysis(emp), Krebs cycle and electron transport chain (oxidative phosphorylation). In this process, the glucose is converted to pyruvate during glycolysis and the same pyruvate produces carbon dioxide and water, along with the generation of energy. ​

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30
Q

What are the net outcomes (products and energy carriers) for the major pathways of glucose breakdown (based on an image)?

A

Glycolysis: Glucose breakdown to 2 pyruvates is coupled to net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
kreb: 3 CO2 are produced by decarboxylation, 4 NADH (starting from Acetyl-CoA, just 3), 1 FADH2 are produced by redox reactions, 1 ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.
electron:

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31
Q

What types of enzymes contribute to electron transfers at the start and end of the ETS?

A

The electron transport chain forms a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, which drives the synthesis of ATP via chemiosmosis.

32
Q

Which structures or processes generating ATP involve (or do not involve) the chemiosmotic model?

A

Energy released in these reactions is captured as a proton gradient, which is then used to make ATP in a process called chemiosmosis.

33
Q

What are the key outcomes and energy carrier states resulting from PSI in green sulfur bacteria?

A

high concentrations of H2S and adequate light penetrance

34
Q

Which organisms do or do not perform oxygenic photosynthesis?

A

cyanobaceria and chloroplasts

35
Q

Which reducing cofactor(s) are typically used in anabolism?

A

The reducing agents NADH, NADPH, and FADH2, as well as metal ions, act as cofactors at various steps in anabolic pathways.

36
Q

Why is N fixation tightly regulated and rare in nature?

A

because it is a process only a few microbes can do

37
Q

What are the various pathways for CO2 fixation?

A

calvin cycle, reproductive TCA cycle,

38
Q

Which microbial genera are used in cheese to give it distinctive character (based on an image)?

A

Arthrobacter

39
Q

What are the microbial processes that cause food spoilage for common categories of food?

A

The most common food spoilage causing molds are Mucor, Aspergillus spp, Rhizopus spp, Penicillium spp, Alternaria spp, Bothrytis, Byssochlamys, Fusarium spp. This mold causes off-flavors, mycotoxins contamination, discoloration, rotting, and is externally visible in the food

40
Q

What are the differences between Baltimore classifications and replication cycles between HPV and Picornaviruses?

A

The Baltimore system classifies viruses based on their means of mRNA systhesis

41
Q

How do plant viruses and animal viruses differ in their process(es) for infecting cells?

A

plants have tougher cell walls

42
Q

How are lambda phage lysogenic and lytic cycles regulated within cells (based on an image)?

A

Bacteriophage lambda binds to the maltose porin that is embedded in the outer membrane

43
Q

What are the ranked fatality rates of the various coronaviruses?

A
44
Q

What is the process and function of lentiviral vectors?

A

Lentiviral vectors in gene therapy is a method by which genes can be inserted, modified, or deleted in organisms using lentivirus. Lentivirus are a family of viruses that are responsible for notable diseases like AIDS, which infect by inserting DNA into their host cells’ genome.

45
Q

How does HSV-1 cycle and what factor(s) control its latency?

A

Herpes simplex virus type 1 is a neurotropic herpesvirus that establishes latency within sensory neurones. Following primary infection, the virus

46
Q

What are the basic features that distinguish Archaea from Bacteria and Eukaryotes?

A

All of life can be divided into three domains, based on the type of cell of the organism: Bacteria: cells do not contain a nucleus. Archaea: cells do not contain a nucleus; they have a different cell wall from bacteria. Eukarya: cells do contain a nucleus.

47
Q

What are the key features and lifestyles of Euryarchaeota?

A

Euryarchaeota are highly diverse and include methanogens, which produce methane and are often found in intestines, halobacteria, which survive extreme

48
Q

Which Firmicutes are agents of bioterrorism and tetanus?

A

Burkholderia mallei is able to infect humans and is therefore classed as a zoonotic agent. Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals

49
Q

What are some very important representatives in the Actinobacteria (Actinomycetes) that are major interest for making antibiotics or causing TB?

A
50
Q

Which Deltaproteobacteria have features resembling those of fungi?

A
51
Q

What is the taxonomic place of E. coli?

A

Taxonomy. Escherichia coli is classified taxonomically in the genus Escherichia (named after its discoverer Theodor Escherich), family Enterobacteriaceae, order Enterobacteriales, class Gammaproteobacteria, phylum Proteobacteria.

52
Q

Which archaea play a role in obesity, and what is this role?

A
53
Q

How do we define opportunistic pathogens and which microbes can become members in this group?

A

Opportunistic Infections (OIs) are defined as infections occuring due to bacteria, fungi, viruses, or parasites that normally do not cause a disease

54
Q

What is the order of processes and structures involved in biofilm formation?

A

free floating bacteria, adhesion, colony formation, biofilm maturation, release of free floating bactera

55
Q

How does a biofilm in a flea contribute to the plague?

A

Growth and consolidation of the biofilm within the proventriculus interferes with or completely blocks normal blood feeding, resulting in regurgitation of bacteria and transmission. Fleas with a blocked proventriculus make prolonged, repeated attempts to feed, enhancing the transmission of the bacteria.

56
Q

Which group of eukaryotes form symbioses with corals or toxic red tides?

A

Some species form blooms in the oceans, a phenomenon called “red tide” due to coloration of the water resulting from the intense concentration of algal cells.

57
Q

What are the common traits shared by most fungi?

A

While fungi can be multicellular or unicellular, all fungi have two things in common: cell walls made of a tough polysaccharide, called chitin, which provides structure. external digestion of food.

58
Q

What major types of microbes associate beneficially with plant roots?

A

Bacteria benefit from the plant nutrients provided by the roots, but plants can benefit from their rhizobacteria as well. Bacteria known as Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are diverse and represent a wide range of phyla.

59
Q

What compound sequesters excess O2 to facilitate nitrogen fixation in rhizobia-legume symbiosis (based on an image)?

A
60
Q

Which processes do intracellular pathogens use to survive within host cells?

A

intracellular pathogens can adopt one of these different patterns of infection in the host. Interestingly, many intracellular pathogens thrive inside one

61
Q

Why is molecular Koch’s Postulates important?

A

Koch’s postulates have been critically important in establishing the criteria whereby the scientific community agrees that a microorganism causes a disease.

62
Q

How is qRT-PCR used and how does it work?

A

Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) is used when the starting material is RNA. In this method, RNA is first transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reverse transcriptase from total RNA or messenger RNA (mRNA). The cDNA is then used as the template for the qPCR reaction.

63
Q

What are the various established “biosafety levels” and their features?

A

The four biosafety levels are BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-3, and BSL-4, with BSL-4 being the highest (maximum) level of containment. There are additional specific rules and designations for animal research (ABSL), agricultural research (BSL-Ag), and other types of research.

64
Q

Which antibiotics inhibit protein synthesis, disrupt membranes, or inhibit RNA synthesis?

A

Erythromycin, roxithromycin, and clarithromycin all prevent elongation at the transpeptidation step of synthesis by blocking the 50S polypeptide export tunnel.

65
Q

What forms of antibiotic resistance have evolved in microbes?

A

Through mutation and selection, bacteria can develop defense mechanisms against antibiotics. For example, some bacteria have developed biochemical “pumps” that can remove an antibiotic before it reaches its target, while others have evolved to produce enzymes to inactivate the antibiotic.

66
Q

What causes “stomach flu” gastroenteritis?

A

Rotavirus

67
Q

What are the characteristics of the botulism toxin?

A

Botulism (“BOT-choo-liz-um”) is a rare but serious illness caused by a toxin that attacks the body’s nerves and causes difficulty breathing, muscle paralysis, and even death. This toxin is made by Clostridium botulinum and sometimes Clostridium butyricum and Clostridium baratii bacteria.

68
Q

What NGS method is used to assess microbial community function or gene expression?

A

metatranscriptomics

69
Q

What are the characteristics types of lakes their corresponding microbial communities?

A

organic nutrients are said to be oligotrophic and are dominated by oxygenic phototrophs in their upper zone

70
Q

What are the multipartite microbiota in termites and what do they do?

A

The mutualistic gut microbes include bacteria, archaea, and, in the case of lower termites, cellulolytic flagellates

71
Q

What are the important global processes that cycle C, and how do they function?

A

Through respiration, plants (and animals) release water and carbon dioxide. They also release energy, in the form of heat, or infrared radiation.

72
Q

How do microbes play essential roles in wastewater treatment?

A

Microbes participate in the secondary step of wastewater treatment,

73
Q

What terms describe exchanges between microbes in polymicrobial communities?

A

Polymicrobial biofilm communities may be defined as a varied collection of organisms (fungi, bacteria, and viruses) that exist at a phase or density interface

74
Q

How are the paradox and pot of gold hypotheses of endosymbiosis connected?

A

the paradox is

75
Q

What types of metabolic complementarity can occur in symbiosis?

A

microbiology (4 decks)

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