Memory

Question 1

Encoding

Answer 1

in what form?

Question 2

Capacity

Answer 2

how much information?

Question 3

Duration

Answer 3

how long for?

Question 4

Sensory Memory: Encoding

Answer 4

iconic memory (visual from the eye) - images
echoic memory (auditory input from the ears) - sounds
haptic memory (tactile input from the body) - feelings

Question 5

Where does sensory memory take information for

Answer 5

from the sense organs and holds them in that same form

Question 6

Research in Sensory Memory

Answer 6

information is stored in an unprocessed form
transferred to short term memory through attention

Question 7

Sensory Memory: Sperling 1960 - recalling letters

Answer 7

presented a grid of letters for less than a second
sperling used a grid of letters to cue participants to recall a specific row
recall on the specified row was high
demonstrated we have large capacity in sensory memory

Question 8

Short Term Memory: Encoding

Answer 8

in 1964 Conrad visually presented students with one letter at a time
letters that are acoustically similar are harder to recall from STM than those which are acoustically dissimilar
suggesting that STM mainly encodes things acoustically even though items were presented visually

Question 9

Short Term Memory: Capacity

Answer 9

Miller 1956, the STM can hold ‘the magic number 7 plus or minus 2)
on average the capacity of STM is between 5 and 9 items of information

Question 10

Short Term Memory: Extending Capacity, chunking

Answer 10

Miller 1956, increase capacity by combining separate bits of information into larger chunks
chunking involves making info more meaningful by organising it in line with existing knowledge from your LTM

Question 11

Short Term Memory: Duration

Answer 11

the duration of STM is 18-30 seconds
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
got students to recall combinations of 3 letters (trigrams after longer and longer intervals)
prevented from rehearsing during trigrams using a counting task

Question 12

Long Term Memory: Encoding

Answer 12

Baddeley 1966
presented lists of 10 words at a time
some lists were semantically similar some were not
tested immediately and then after 20 mins
after 20 mins did poorly on semantic test
suggesting we encode LTM’s according to what they mean so similar things get confused

Question 13

Long Term Memory: Capacity

Answer 13

capacity - potential unlimited

Question 14

Long Term Memory: Duration

Answer 14

anything up to a lifetime - difficult to test exact duration
Bahrick et al (1975) tested US graduates
show classmates photos years later
90% accuracy remembering faces and names 34 yrs after graduation this declined after 48 yrs particularly for faces

Question 15

Multi Store Model of Memory Theory

Answer 15

Memory is the process of encoding, storing and retrieving information
encoding or coding is taking information from the environment, converting the information so that it can be stored
storage, retaining encoded information can be in LTM or STM
retrieval, access the information that has been stored

Question 16

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Answer 16

Environment Input - Sensory Memory - STM (rehearsal loop) = LTM
+ recall, attention, prolonged rehearsal, retrieval

Question 17

Primary Recency Effect

Answer 17

first few words are inputted into sensory memory and they are paid attention to an placed in STM and then rehearsed into LTM then retained back into STM
middle words are placed in sensory memory however they stay there and decay
last few word get to STM because first few words have now been processed

Question 18

Evaluating Multi-Store Model of Memory

Answer 18

the first model of memory - pro
we can now study what STM and LTM is and can help solve issues, if someone new comes they have a good basis to start from
the model is oversimplified - con
many research finding cannot be explained by the model, more than one type of rehearsal, more than one type of STM and LTM
over emphasis the role of rehearsal - con
this is because it makes it sound like rehearsal is the only way to store information in your LTM
a pro is that it can explain primary recency effect

Question 19

Case Study: Henry Gustav Molaison - 1953

Answer 19

HM had an accident as a boy which caused him to have seizures to control these seizures he had brain surgery to remove is hippocampus and amygdala
as a result of surgery the seizures decreased but he could no longer form new memories or remember the prior 11 years of his life
however he could remember childhood memories
the surgeon probably destroyed brain structures which played a role in sense of smell and forming new memories
anterogade amnesia due to loss of hippocampus
HM could use his memory only until STM and could live only in the moment

Question 20

Brenda Miller’s experiment on HM

Answer 20

He was to trace an outline of a star, but he could only see the mirrored reflection. He did this once a day over a period of a few days and Milner observed that he became faster and faster. Each time he performed the task he had no memory of ever having done it before, but his performance kept improving. This is further evidence for localization of function – the hippocampus must play a role in declarative (explicit) memory but not procedural (implicit) memory

Question 21

Does HM support the multi-store model

Answer 21

because the model can explain where HMs anterograde amnesia stems from
he is unable to move STM into the LTM which denotes both the existence of STM and LTM on separate stores and the need for the movement between them

Question 22

Research Support for Seperation of LTM and STM

Answer 22

Baddeley 1966 gave ppts word lists, acoustically similar and dissimilar, semantically similar and dissimilar
ppts mixed up acoustically similar words in STM and semantically similar words LTM
supports model, as model suggests that LTM and STM are separate stores
this gives the model validity as it suggests its accurate

Question 23

Flashbulb Memories

Answer 23

do not require rehearsal
an event that occurs that sticks with someone
an accurate and vivid memory effected by emotional states
multi-store model is unable to explain why they occur, this is a limitation of the model therefore lacks explanatory power for real life memory forming

Question 24

Memory pros and cons concerning
memory research
HM

Answer 24

memory research uses nonsense tasks and is conducted in laboratories therefore does not have ecological validity because the tasks are situations that we would no face in everyday life
there are ethical tissues with HM case study because no informed consent from him because he forgot that he gave consent or had the right to withdraw they did have consent from his guardians

Question 25

Working Model Memory Intro

Answer 25

Baddeley and Hitch
they believed that STM store in MSM was too simplistic they thought that STM was not a passive store but several active processes that manipulate info

Question 26

Experiment Dual-Task

Answer 26

if digit span is a measure of STM capacity ppts should be expected to show impaired performance on the reasoning task because their STM would be fully occupied
ppts made errors on either however speed was slightly slower
they concluded that STM must be made of several components all of which are involved in processes other than simply storage

Question 27

Working Model of Memory

Answer 27

central executive
visuo-spatial sketchpad
episodic buffer
phonological loop

Question 28

Central Executive

Answer 28

drives the system
decides how attention is directed to particular tasks
allocates the resources to tasks
data arrives from the senses or from the LTM
has limited storage capacity, so cannot attend to many things at once

Question 29

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

Answer 29

stores and manipulates visual information, input is from eyes or LTM
if you imagine an object and then picture it rotating you are using your visuo-spatial sketchpad
2 sub-systems
visual cache - stores visual data
inner scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field (where they are)

Question 30

Episodic Buffer

Answer 30

the episodic buffer takes information from the other slave systems and adds information about time and order, ready for episodic LTM

Question 31

Phonological Loop

Answer 31

inner ear, repeat sounds to remember use sound based code to remember, decays after 2 seconds
articulatory loop, inner voice, rehearses info verbally and has capacity of 2 seconds, repeat over and over again

Question 32

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
Support for WMM comes from clinical evidence

Answer 32

Support for WMM comes from clinical evidence - case study of patient KF they suffered brain damage then had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information, only PL had been damaged this supports the separation of visual and acoustic stores, however may not be reliable because cases are unique

Question 33

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
Better at explaining memory than MSM

Answer 33

yes more developed STM less simplified, divides STM into parts which evidence suggests is accurate

Question 34

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
Concept of CE is vague

Answer 34

least understood of working components, needs to be more clearly explained than just simply being attention, may consist of separate components

Question 35

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
WMM not complete explanation of

Answer 35

doesnt talk about LTM doesnt show how information moves to the LTM, can only be used when comparing MSM

Question 36

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
Logie et al (1989)

Answer 36

ppts play game and at the same time carry out either a visuo-spatial/ verbal memory distracter task
impaired performance on perceptual motor
conclusion separated PL and V-S SP, demonstrates limited capacity of components, can only do a certain amount of processing

Question 37

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
WMM helps explain learning differences

Answer 37

DeSong 2006 dyslexia involves deficit in PL and CE functioning, effects childrens learning of phonics, ability to take apart and analyse sounds in words requires student to have strong working memory
real life application if we know PL + CE not functioning teachers can come up with strategies to help

Question 38

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
Brain scanning studies have been conducted

Answer 38

tasks involving CE during brain scan
greater activity in prefrontal cortex
activity in area increased as task became harder
as demand on CE increases it works harder
suggests STM is actively processing info

Question 39

Evaluation of the Working Model of Memory
Dual task experiments have been carried out

Answer 39

support separate existence of V-S SP, more difficulty doing 2 visual tasks than one verbal and one visual, this is because they arent the same slave systems and therefore there is no competition

Question 40

Types of LTM

Answer 40

procedural memory (non-declarative memory) - knowing how
declarative memory - knowing that

Question 41

Procedural memory/ non-declarative memory

Answer 41

implicit, knowing how, not easy to put into words
memory for actions or skills
can recall these memories without conscious awareness or a great deal of effort

Question 42

Declarative memory

Answer 42

explicit memory, knowing that, easy to put into words

Question 43

Declarative memory further splits into

Answer 43

semantic memory - general knowledge
episodic memories - personal recollection

Question 44

Semantic memory

Answer 44

contains knowledge of the world
includes facts
memories of what words mean, e.g. what university is
these memories are not time stamped much less personal
better sustained over time than episodic
linked to episodic as new knowledge tends to come from experience
some suggest it is linked to the hippocampus some say several areas

Question 45

Episodic memory

Answer 45

Auto biographical record of your experience
strength of memory influenced by emotions present at time of encoding
strength affected by degree of processing - highly processed memories recalled more easily
suggested that they help in distinguishing between real events and imagination
coding in the prefrontal cortex
different parts of memory for the event are looked in different areas of the brain
connected through the hippocampus to create memory of an episode rather than separate sections

Question 46

Evaluation of Tulvings Theory of LTM - CL

Answer 46

8yr old CL had brain damage after tumour removed which led to deficiencies in episodic LTM, semantic LTM unaffected suggesting they use different brain areas

Question 47

Evaluation of Tulvings Theory of LTM - Clive Wearing

Answer 47

famous musician who suffered from a rare brain infection which left him with moment to moment memory
but procedural memory that had previously stored were still available to him if you ask him if he can play music he says no (declarative) but he can still play the piano (non-declarative memory), semantic memory is also fine

Question 48

Evaluation of Tulvings Theory of LTM - HM

Answer 48

HM drew a star by tracing it he couldnt look down but he could look at the mirror, procedural memory not affected since he can do this
however episodic memory effected because he cant remember doing this

Question 49

Evaluation of Tulvings Theory of LTM - Brain Damage Difficulties

Answer 49

brain damage is traumatic which may change behaviour
may have difficulties paying attention and therefore underperform on some memory tasks
cannot control degree of damage sustained
may be a relay station that is damaged not the area that controls the behaviour

Question 50

Evaluation of Tulvings Theory of LTM - AO3 Neuroimaging Evidence

Answer 50

Nyberg et al (2003) brain scans show memories are stored in different areas of the brain, PET scans show episodic and semantic are in the pre-frontal cortex, left semantic, right episodic
concept has validity

Question 51

Evaluation of Tulvings Theory of LTM - AO3 Real Life Applications

Answer 51

can target aspects of memory to improve lives
episodic memory can be improved in older people who have mild cognitive impairment
enables specific treatment to be made
relationship between episodic and semantic
some patients retain ability to form new semantic memories but not episodic memories

Question 52

Interference Theory Research Schmidt et al (2000)

Answer 52

aimed to assess influence of retroactive interference upon memory of street names learned during childhood

Question 53

Interference Theory Research Schmidt et al (2000) - Procedure

Answer 53

randomly slected 700 pupils from database old and new students they were all sent questionnaires
211 responded (11-79) given a map of the area with 48 street names replaced with numbers, asked to remember as many as possible, relevant details were collected (how many times ppt moved, where they lived), retroactive interference was assessed by the number of times individuals had moved (thus learning new street names)

Question 54

Interference Theory Research Schmidt et al (2000) - Findings

Answer 54

positive association between number of times ppts had moved house and number of street names they had forgotten
retroactive interference is potentially causing forgetfulness of true supports interference theory

Question 55

Interference Theory Research Schmidt et al (2000) - Extraneous variables

Answer 55

higher IQ = better memory
real life settings
can cheat on questionnaires
age older = worse memory
method of transportation

Question 56

Baddeley and Hitch (1977) - Rugby Players Retroactive interference

Answer 56

asked rugby players to remember as many as possible of the teams they had played
interference tested by assessing how recall was affected by number of games played
forgetting was due to number of games played rather than passage of time
supports retroactive interference as more games played more interference experienced

Question 57

Forgetting

Answer 57

the failure to recall memories

Question 58

Interference Theory

Answer 58

forgetting is due to the information in the LTM becoming confused with or disrupted by other information while coding, confusion or disruption leads to inaccurate recall

Question 59

Proactive

Answer 59

previously learned information interferes with more recent learning e.g. you call your new partner your ex-partners name

Question 60

Retroactive

Answer 60

recent learning interferes with information previously learned e.g your recent learning of spanish interferes with your previous learning of french

Question 61

Interference Theory McGeoch and McDonald (1932)

Answer 61

in both cases interference is worse when memories are similar

Question 62

Interference Theory McGeoch and McDonald (1932) - Procedure

Answer 62

studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials
ppts had to learn a list of 10 words (100% accuracy)
they then learned a new list 6 groups
group 1 - synonyms
group 2 - antonyms
group 3 - words unrelated to original
group 4 - consonant syllables
group 5 - 3-digit numbers
group 6 - no list (control group)

Question 63

Interference Theory McGeoch and McDonald (1932) - Findings

Answer 63

when recalling the original list of words , performance depended on the second list
the most similar material produced the worst recall, interference is strongest when memories are similar

Question 64

Interference Theory A03
lacks ecological validity

Answer 64

only explains forgetting when two sets of information are similar. this cannot be applied to everyday real-life forgetting. for example forgetting to go the one appointment you booked cannot be explained by the interference theory. therefore the interference theory lacks external validity because it does not explain why we forget non-similar things it only explains forgetting similar things. it also lacks real-life application because most evidence is from lab studies which also lack ecological validity.

Question 65

Interference Theory A03
lab experiments

Answer 65

one strength of interference theory is lab experiments, literally thousand of lab experiments have been carried out into this explanation for forgetting. for example in 1931, McGeoch and McDonald made an experiments where they tested ppts with a list of 10 words which they had to learn with 100% accuracy, the ppts were then separated into 6 groups each group having to learn a different second list with varying levels of similarity. the results showcased that when recalling the original list of words their performance depended on the nature of the second list. the more similar the worse the results. this proves the interference theory. however since a lab experiment it takes place in artificial settings and lacks ecological validity.

Question 66

Retrieval Failure/ Cue-dependent Forgetting

Answer 66

a type of forgetting based upon a failure to retrieve the prompts to trigger recall
information is still in LTM but cannot be accessed
recall is dependent on accessing information by remembering the retrieval under which the information is stored

Question 67

Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP)

Answer 67

Tulving 1988, if a cue is to help us recall it has to be present at encoding and at retrieval
if the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different forgetting will occur

Question 68

Context-Dependent Failure

Answer 68

external retrieval cues, forgetting occurs when the external environment is different at recall from when it was encoded
for example achieving fewer marks in a test when you take the test in a different room to where you learnt the information

Question 69

State-Dependent Failure

Answer 69

internal retrieval cues
forgetting occurs when an individuals internal environment is dissimilar at recall to when the information was encoded

Question 70

State-Dependent Failure Research Darley et al (1975)

Answer 70

ppts who hid money while high on marijuana were less able to recall where the money was when they were not high. when they were high again they were better able to recall where they had hid the money

Question 71

State-Dependent Failure Research Carter and Cassaday (1988) - Procedure

Answer 71

they looked at the effect of anti-histamines, they gave these to their ppts, these had a mild sedative effect making the ppts slightly drowsy. this creates an internal physiological state different from the normal state of being awake and alert. the ppts had to learn passages of prose and recall it
group 1 - learn on the drug - recall when on it
group 2 - learn on the drug - recall when not on it
group 3 - learn not on drug - recall when on it
group 4 - learn not on drug - recall when not on it

Question 72

State-Dependent Failure Research Carter and Cassaday (1988) - Findings

Answer 72

where there was mismatch between internal state at learning and recall performance on the memory test was significantly worse, so when cues are absent there is more forgetting

Question 73

Context-Dependent Failure Research Godden and Baddeley (1975) - Procedure

Answer 73

divers learned a list of words when underwater or on land and then were asked to recall the words either underwater or on land
group 1 - learn on land - recall on land
group 2 - learn on land - recall underwater
group 3 - learn underwater - recall on land
group 4 - learn underwater - recall underwater

Question 74

Context-Dependent Failure Research Godden and Baddeley (1975) - Findings

Answer 74

in two of these conditions the environmental contexts of learning and recall matched, whereas is the other two they did not, accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions

Question 75

Retrieval Failure Theory AO3
real life application

Answer 75

although context-dependent cues appear not to have a very strong effect on forgetting. Baddeley suggest they are worth paying attention to this could be very useful in education we could do tests in the same environment that content was learnt

Question 76

Retrieval Failure Theory AO3
not testable

Answer 76

ESP cannot be tested since it leads to a form of circular reasoning in experiments where a cue produces the successful recall of a word we assume that the cue must have been encoded at time of learning and the opposite for when a cue does not produce a successful result, no way to check whether cues have been created or not

Question 77

Retrieval Failure Theory AO3
cues effect memory when tested a specific way

Answer 77

when the divers study is altered to be a recognition test it becomes a limitation because recognition wasnt affected by context-dependent forgetting going under sea or on land had no effect on their ability to recognise. therefore theory only works when a specific thing is taught and then remembered not when testing recognition

Question 78

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information - Leading Questions - Loftus and Palmer Experiment 1

Answer 78

in 1974 Loftus and Palmer investigated how information provided to a witness after an event will influence their memory of the event
Method - IV was verb used DV estimates of speed
45 ppts were shown a video they were split into 5 groups all ppts were asked ‘about how fast were the cars going when they — each other’
each group was given a different verb to fill in the blank
results
smashed 40.8mph
collided
bumped
hit
contacted 31.8mph

Question 79

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information - Leading Questions - Loftus and Palmer Experiment Evaluation Ecological Validity

Answer 79

low because it was a laboratory study and the ppts know they were taking part in an experiment
in real life situations would be an element of surprise so you might not be playing attention
might not be asked questions until some time later
have the opportunity to talk with other people

Question 80

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information - Leading Questions - Loftus and Palmer Experiment ppts

Answer 80

ppts were all students
not representative of general population, may include age, driving experience, educational experience (e.g. used to paying attention and get tested)

Question 81

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information - Leading Questions - Loftus and Palmer Experiment Usefulness and Issues

Answer 81

useful
police questioning witness
courtroom witness rules
issues
hard to estimate speed for some people easier for others
driver not visible in car, old woman go slow
what if car had been a porsche or ferrari

Question 82

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information - Post-Event Discussion - Gabbert et al (2003)

Answer 82

when co-witnesses to a crime discuss it, testimony can be contaminated
ppts watched video of the crime, filmed from different viewpoints, so each ppt could see elements of the event that others could not, ppts then discussed what they had seen before comparing recall
71% of ppts recalled aspects of the event they did not see but picked up in discussion, control group 0%
conclusion, witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe others may be right and they may be wrong this is called memory conformity

Question 83

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information Evaluation

Answer 83

supporting evidence, Loftus and Palmer suggest EWT in real life is generally inaccurate and hence unreliable
lack of ecological validity in study: Foster (1994) found if ppts thought they were watching a real life robbery and their response would influence the trial, their identification of the robber was more accurate
real-world application: EWT research is important to ensure innocent people are not convicted on the basis of faulty EWT’s
individual differences - elderly people compare to younger subjects have difficulty remembering source of information therefore more prone to misleading information

Question 84

Anxiety has a negative effect on recall

Answer 84

anxiety leads to increased arousal in the body which can stop us from paying attention to important cues (such as facial features of attacker) and therefore recall is worse

Question 85

Anxiety has a positive effect on recall

Answer 85

the stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety
the fight or flight response is triggered which increases our alertness and therefore improves our memory for the event because we are aware of cues in the situation like the attackers face

Question 86

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety - Negative Effect - Johnson and Scott (1976)

Answer 86

ppts in a waiting room overheard a heated discussion in the room next door
condition 1 = overhear normal conversation, man emerges holding ink-stained pen (low anxiety) - 49% of ppts accurately identified the man
condition 2 = overhear heated conversation, man emerges holding blood-stained knife (high anxiety) - 36% of ppts accurately identified the man
conclusion anxiety makes EWT worse

Question 87

Weapon Focus Effect

Answer 87

if a crime is violent then high anxiety and levels off arousal may focus attention on the central details of the attack e.g. weapon used instead of perpetrators face

Question 88

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety - Positive Effect - Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Answer 88

a group of 21 customers in a gun shop in Vancouver witnessed the owner of the shop shoot and kill a thief
they all gave statements to the police
13 of these original customers were interviewed five months later by Yuille and Cutshall
original statements were compares to interviews for accuracy most ppts were very accurate even after 5 months
ppts were asked how stressful they found the event those who found it more stressful were more accurate in their recollection of the event

Question 89

Yerkes Dodson Law

Answer 89

we can account for the contradictory findings between positive and negative effects on anxiety using the inverted u hypothesis
this states that when arousal (e.g. anxiety) is concerned, there is an optimum level at which performance will be best, but below or above this it will be worse

Question 89

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety - A03 - inverted u hypothesis is too simple

Answer 89

anxiety is difficult to explain and measure accurately
anxiety has many many elements: cognitive, behavioural, emotional, physical
but the inverted u hypothesis assumes only one of these is linked to poor performance, physiological (physical) arousal

Question 90

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety - A03 - individual differences

Answer 90

suggests that a key extraneous variable in studies of anxiety is emotional sensitivity
Bothwell et al (1987) ppts were tested for personality characteristics labelled as neuronic (anxious quickly) or stable (less emotionally sensitive)
stable ppts showed rising levels of accuracy as stress levels increased the opposite happened for neuronics

Question 91

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety - A03 - Parker (2006)

Answer 91

lab-based and real life studies of anxiety only compare high and low anxiety groups. However there must be a moderate group so that it can be properly tested
Parker overcame this problem by interviewing people who had been affected by the destruction wrought by hurricane Andrew in the US in 1992, researchers defined anxiety in terms of the amount of damage the ppts suffered to their homes
researchers found that there there was a link between the level of recall and the amount of damage? anxiety experienced

Question 92

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety - A03 - Pickel (1988)

Answer 92

Pickel conducted an experiment using scissors a handgun a wallet and a raw chicken
scissors low anxiety low unusualness
chicken and handgun low anxiety high unusualness
weapon focus is due to unusualness rather than anxiety and therefore it tells us nothing specifically about effects on anxiety on EWT

Question 93

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety - A03 - Yuille and Cutshall measurements

Answer 93

they used a likert scale to measure anxiety this is a problem because every person has different perception of levels of anxiety
also people might lie if they dont want others to know how anxious they got

Question 94

What is EWT

Answer 94

EWT is important for juries when making decisions
in 75% of cases, where individuals found to have been wrongly convicted by DNA evidence the original EWT which led to the conviction was incorrect
research helps further our understanding and has many practical applications
has influence how courts conduct witness statements and the basis of convictions

Question 95

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony: Schema

Answer 95

Bartlett (1932) - memories are not accurate snapshots of event but are reconstructions
schemas are internal, mental representations of the world they cause us to interpret sensory information in a pre-set manner
schemas affect the reliability of EWT, witnesses arent just revealing facts as they happened, they are reconstructing memories

Question 96

What Principles is the CI Based on?

Answer 96

organisation - the way memory is organised means memories can be accessed in a number of ways
cue dependency - memories are cue dependent, they use situational and emotional cues present during the original encoding

Question 97

The Four CI Techniques

Answer 97

reinstate the context
change of narrative order
change perspective
repeat everything

Question 98

Reinstate the Context

Answer 98

help the interviewees go back in their minds to the context in which they encoded the memory e.g. how they were feeling emotionally
going back in mind - external or internal cue could cause recall

Question 99

Change of Narrative Order

Answer 99

changing the order in which the events are recalled can be very beneficial as it ensures that details are not skipped and gaps can be filed e.g. witness asked to record their account in reverse order
blocks the effect of schemas and therefore stop expectations impacting memory

Question 100

Change Perspective

Answer 100

you are asked to describe the incident from the perspective of other people who were present at the time e.g. from the offender pov
block effect of schemas i.e. expectations of being a victim

Question 101

Report Everything

Answer 101

required to report back any information about the event you can remember, even if it does not seem to have a bearing on the crime
this should trigger further details + memories

Question 102

ECI Fisher and Geiselman (1987)

Answer 102

amended version of the CI the ECI builds a trusting relationship between interviewer and witness, this improves the communications between the two
includes ideas about reducing anxiety, minimising distractions, asking open ended questions and getting the witness to speak slowly
the interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it (they may receive learning for this)

Question 103

AO3 CI - Supporting Research

Answer 103

strength of the CI is the amount of supporting research for example Kohnken et al (1999( conducted a meta-analysis of 53 studies and found an average increase of 34% in the amount of correct info gathered in the ECI compared to standard interview techniques

Question 104

AO3 CI - Can be Split

Answer 104

another strength of the CI is the ability to be split and used separately in 2002 Milne and Bull found that each individual element was uniquely available
they found that a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any other condition
this is a strength because it suggest that even if CI cant be used as a whole two elements should be used
also many times police dont have enough time for training so they could learn these two initially

Question 105

AO3 CI - Time consuming and Expensive

Answer 105

learning the CI is time consuming and expensive and the police is a government funded institution therefore has limited spending capacity and the training for CI is very specialist
Kebhel and Wagstaff found that many police forces have not been able to provide more than a few hours of training
also conducting the CI takes more time than a standard police interview